Dissertations / Theses: 'Mediterranean states' – Grafiati (2024)

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Thesis (M.A. in National Security Affairs) Naval Postgraduate School, June 2001.
Thesis advisor(s): Porch, Douglas. "June 2001." Includes bibliographical references (p. 101-105). Also Available in print.

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In 1952 Turkey was invited to become a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation. This study examines the context of the Turkish demand for an American security guarantee and of American and British security interests in the Eastern Mediterranean in the late 1940s in the light of Cold War developments. The postwar weakness of Great Britain, who had until then guarantied the status quo in the area induced Ankara to tum to the United States as a guarantor of Turkish political independence and territorial integrity against a powerful Soviet Union. The Turks asked for a formal alliance with the Americans, but this proved to be a difficult task. In the eyes of American military and State Department officials Turkey was a barrier against Soviet penetration in the Middle East. Hence, it was thought necessary to strengthen her resistance to the Soviets through the provision of American military aid. However,, Washington was reluctant to stretch the United States' resources by extending its commitments to this area which was still thought to be a British military responsibility. Britain for her part responded to Turkish demands in accordance with her general interests in the Middle East. London regarded Turkey as a part of Middle East defence: hence, it favoured an American commitment to Turkey, but mainly as a means of getting the Americans involved in the area as a whole. The evolution of American military thinking regarding Europe and the Middle East in 1951, made Washington to revise its policies towards Ankara. The realisation of Turkey's importance for the organisation of defence both in Western Europe and the Middle East along with the fear that Turkey might turn neutral in the event of a conflict with the Soviet Union induced the Americans to meet Turkish demands in what appeared to be the easiest way, that is, inviting Turkey to join the Atlantic Alliance. The study concludes that in the late 1940s Ankara followed a pragmatic foreign policy. Turkish leaders had a clear perception of their country's interests and were particularly alert at exploiting the circ*mstances which would promote them. In contrast, the foreign policy of the United States towards the Eastern Mediterranean was still developing and lacked the determination of a great power. Britain, on the other hand, continued to plan like a great power although it was obvious that she was not in a position to do so any more.

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The aim of EU Regional Policy is to intervene effectively in regions that “lag behind” in economic terms and to finance development programmes through the allocation of Structural Funds which operate in accordance with the principles of subsidiarity, additionality and partnership. This policy should allow regions to converge with EU averages in terms of income and employment. Italy and Spain provide very good examples within the EU as a whole, of significant economic disparities between regions that still appear to be present. We argue and provide substantial evidence of the fact that the persistence of such disparities is mainly due to inefficient administrative and institutional capacity at the regional level. Although some regions have brought themselves towards the average, in Italy and Spain, there is evidence that certain administrative, institutional and implementation problems have tended to appear, hampering the opportunities of regions to converge in the required way. Because of this, regional economic convergence and thereby socio-economic cohesion are still beyond reach. Two decades after the 1988 Reform of the Structural Funds, EU Regional Policy has only partially succeeded in reducing regional economic divergence within Italy and Spain, where regional economic inequalities still exist. Although we demonstrate that some regions have been able to move forward in the requisite way, it is questionable whether all of the support for these regions can actually be eliminated completely in the near future with the challenges that the EU faces, particularly in relation to the latest round of Enlargement.

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This study analyzes U.S. relations with the Barbary States from 1784 to 1805. After the American Revolution, the young nation found its commerce menaced in the Mediterranean by North African pirates sponsored by the rulers of Morocco, Tunis, Algiers, and Tripoli. As the U.S. sought to find a solution to end piracy and the practice of paying tributes or ransom to free Americans held captive, Thomas Jefferson proposed several solutions as a diplomat, vice president, and as president when he authorized the Tripolitan War (1801-1805). Thus, this look at U.S. relations with the Barbary States focuses on Jefferson’s evolving foreign policy proposals and argues that William Eaton’s secret mission in 1805 eventually reshaped U.S. policy in the Mediterranean and brought Jefferson’s ideas for a military solution to fruition. This change in policy would soon bring about the end of piracy against U.S. merchant vessels and the nation’s involvement in tributary treaties.

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World War II was the most devastating war in human history in terms of loss of life. The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, plunged the United States into war. Less than seven thousand military nurses were on active duty at the time of the attack. By the end of the war, there were over fifty-thousand active-duty nurses. The army nurses performed under fire in field and evacuation hospitals, on hospital trains and ships, and as flight nurses on medical evacuation transport aircraft. The skill and dedication of the Army Nurses Corps insured a 95% survival rate for the wounded soldiers who received medical care in a field or evacuation hospital. Two hundred and one nurses lost their lives during World War II and sixty-seven nurses were captured and held as prisoners of war. Sixteen hundred medals, citations and commendations attest to the nurses’ courage and dedication.

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The Dublin Regulation determines the Member State responsible for accepting and making a decision on asylum claims lodged in the European Union (‘EU’), Norway and Iceland. It aims to ensure that each asylum claim is examined by one and only one Member State, to put an end to the practice of ‘asylum shopping’ and to prevent repeated applications, both of which have been costly for the receiving Member States and caused severe inefficiencies in the determination processes in the EU in the past.With the first Member State of entry being the major determinant for the allocation of asylum responsibility under the Dublin Regulation, there has been growing discontent among Member States at the external borders of the EU, particularly the southern Member States in the Mediterranean, over what they see as a system that has unjustly placed disproportionate burdens on them regarding the admission of seaborne asylum seekers and the costs associated with it. As a result of changes in migration rules and consequent adjustments in the entry strategy employed by irregular migrants and people smugglers, the Member States at the EU’s ‘southern frontline’ have unwillingly played the role of reluctant hosts to boatloads of unwelcome asylum seekers.This thesis aims to examine how the EU has attempted to tackle the challenging situation of the unauthorised migration of asylum seekers into its territory by sea, and in particular, how it has responded to demands from affected Member States for a more equitable system of asylum responsibility allocation in spite of and outside the Dublin framework. It would argue that the ‘small’ EU Member States in the Mediterranean themselves have, over the last five years at least, become the unexpected drivers of the EU’s declared commitment to the principles of ‘solidarity’, ‘fair sharing of responsibility’ and ‘effective multilateralism’.‘ Small’ as they may be in terms of resources, size or influence vis-à-vis the larger Member States, the former have been able to create their own mark in a global regime that has traditionally been resistant to the idea of burden-sharing. The measures taken by the EU’s ‘southern frontline’ have collectively changed the landscape of a global protection regime where not only is asylum ‘burden sharing’ highly elusive – its terms and conditions are also dictated by the more powerful sovereign states. While the theoretical point of departure in this study is the influence wielded by the ‘small’ EU Member States in the burden-sharing debate, the degree or level of ‘influence’ small Mediterranean Member States can exercise in pushing for cooperative arrangements is itself determined by a system that is biased towards large states, increasingly securitised, and is therefore limited in both nature and scope. Nevertheless, the experience of ‘burden-sharing’ in the EU between 2005 and 2010 demonstrates that the Member States at the periphery have proactively taken the responsibility for the operationalisation of the founding values and principles of the EU, and through active norm advocacy and related strategies, have been able to achieve what has eluded the global protection regime so far – a refugee burden sharing scheme.

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In 1974 following the Cyprus Crisis, the bilateral alliance between Greece and the United States entered a new period. The bilateral relations, traditionally close since the emergence of the Cold War, faced a set of challenges. Turkey’s invasion of Cyprus and the collapse of the Greek dictatorship, which enjoyed close ties with Washington, gave rise to anti-Americanism in Greek society. Moreover, Washington’s inability to contain Turkish aggression frustrated the Greek government. In response to the invasion of Cyprus, Athens announced Greece’s withdrawal from NATO with the hope of securing the active involvement of the US and NATO in the Greek-Turkish dispute. These developments required readjustments to Greek-US policies and strategies to overcome obstacles and secure their objectives. Greece’s withdrawal from and return to NATO after six years, in October 1980, symbolises best this distinct period of Greek-US cooperation. The traditional historical narrative states that after 1974 the priorities of successive Greek governments were increasingly directed at managing the country’s accession to European Economic Community while developing closer cooperation with the Balkan states. The United States remained another significant ally of Greece. This thesis emphasises that the Greek governments between 1974 and 1980 regarded the United States as the single most important ally for the Greek national security policy. The Greek governments realised that only Washington could assist Greece with both Soviet and Turkish threats. Washington, meanwhile, prioritised retaining close ties with both Greece and Turkey and an eventual re-build of NATO’s Southern Flank. What is significant is that President Carter put aside his idealistic declarations made on the campaign trail and adopted fully Ford/Kissinger’s approach toward Greece, Turkey, and Cyprus, i.e. the Eastern Mediterranean. Hence, the thesis underlines the element of continuity between the US administrations in the second half of 1970s. The thesis makes a significant contribution to Cold War scholarship regarding bilateral relations within the West during the era of détente. Scholars has largely overlooked the US’s relationships with Greece, Turkey, and Cyprus even though the Eastern Mediterranean region dominated the foreign policy agendas of both Ford and Carter administrations. This study argues that President Ford’s handling of relations with Greece was focused on crisis management rather than crisis solving. More significantly, although unrecognised at the time, President Carter’s relations with Greece were a significant success. Ford and Carter responded to the Eastern Mediterranean questions in ways that reflect significant continuities in their approaches. Ford and his Secretary of State Henry Kissinger developed the concept of a ‘balanced approach’ towards Athens and Ankara in political, economic, and military terms that aimed at ensuring close ties with both. Carter followed the same policy concept. Carter succeeded in seeing Greece’s return to full NATO membership while resisting being dragged into the centre of Greek-NATO negotiations. During these years the Greek government also scored significant successes. Greek pressure ensured that Washington devoted equal attention to Greece and Turkey, a much more powerful regional power. Similarly, Greece received significant US economic aid while Turkey faced a strict US arms embargo. By 1980, however, the implications of the Iranian Revolution and the end of détente mandated that Turkey had to take precedence over Greece in the US’s policy considerations.

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In the eleventh century the arrival of the Turks from Central Asia resulted in complex socio-economic and political changes in Upper Mesopotamia (al-Jazīra), Diyār Rūm (Asia Minor) and part of Syria (Diyār Shām). The social, cultural, military and economic life of the Turks intertwined with the native culture and heritage of Greeks, Armenians and Syrians living in those territories. Having as starting point the multifaceted encounters some of the important issues I am addressing in my thesis are the important trade routes that crossed Turkmen-dominated areas in the late middle ages; monetary traffic; mines and mints in operation under the Turkmen rule. As the history of that multicultural environment can best be understood and explained through the coin evidence, a big part of my project will cover numismatic evidence. In this context, my study will focus on the socio-economic and cultural relations and interactions between the Byzantines, old inhabitants, the Turkish newcomers and the western powers in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries in the light of the coins and investigate some questions: Why did the Turkmens issue the Greek and bilingual (Greek-Arabic) coins and seals? Why did the Turkmens borrow images (particularly Byzantine style imagery) from the cultural heritage of the areas they ruled?

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The county of Tripoli (Lebanon) was one of four “crusader states” established in the Levant after the First Crusade (1095-99). Compared to the other states, the county of Tripoli has suffered from a disproportionate level of historiographical neglect. What has been produced has taken an institutional and Eurocentric approach to the subject and its sources. The present thesis jettisons this in favour of a post-institutional methodology, approaching the county from the perspectives of geography and demographics, which together ensure that it is treated within its proper Syro-Lebanese context. Chapter one looks at the role of local geography in shaping the political frontiers of the county of Tripoli and its neighbours, arguing that topography was more important than the agency of the European settlers. Chapter two continues to challenge traditional assumptions regarding European influence, arguing that the specifically southern French origins of many of the county’s settlers were of little significance. Chapter three analyses the use of Arabic by the Frankish government of the county, informed by an awareness of diglossia. It argues that the Franks were more likely to know spoken Arabic than written, but remained reliant upon local intermediaries when ruling over Arabophones. Chapter four looks at popular religion, arguing that the cross-fertilisation of religious beliefs and practices was widespread but poorly understood by the contemporary intelligentsia, upon whose sources historians rely. As a whole, the thesis argues that the county’s inhabitants lacked a distinctive culture, identity, religion or language. The sole justification for viewing the county as an integrated unit is geographical.

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Thesis (M.A. in National Security Affairs)--Naval Postgraduate School, June 2003.
Thesis advisor(s): Donald Abenheim, Daniel J. Moran. Includes bibliographical references (p. 71-76). Also available online.

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Status and distribution of the Mediterranean monk seal in the northeastern Mediterranean were studied between October 2003 and December 2005. In total, 7 research cruises and 8 research visits were carried out to the region in the study period. The study was generally focused on two regions. First region was mainly around the Cilicia basin in the northeastern Mediterranean where a known Mediterranean monk seal colony (the Cilician colony) inhabits. Second region was around the Gulf of iskenderun where the population status of the monk seals was unknown.In the northeastern Mediterranean, all monk seal caves especially those usedfor breeding have been checked for whelping and monitored during the study period. In total, 7 pups were found including one death pup in the study period. Observations of the breeding behavior of the species indicated that, whelping alsotakes place in 2 new caves in addition to the 39 caves already reported for the study area in the earlier studies. Increase in the number of breeding caves showed that thebreeding sites of the species has been expanded within the last 5 years. The Cilician colony size was estimated as 30 individuals in 2005. Identification catalog for eachindividual in the Cilician colony was prepared. Finally, population viability analysis (PVA) for the Cilician monk seal colony was carried out by evaluating the vitalparameters of the species, which have been collected since 1994. This analysis was carried out for both pre-conservation phase and the post-conservation phase. In postconservation phase, the survival and fecundity rate of the Cilician colony was found as 0.976 and 0.169 respectively whereas these values were estimated as 0.902 and0.200 respectively in pre-conservation phase. It was found that there is a 26.9% risk that the monk seal colony abundance will fall below the existing level (30 individuals) at least once during the next 20 years and there is also 0.2% risk that the monk seal colony abundance will fall below 12 at least once during the next 20 years. The risk was found as 21.7% by evaluating the status of the colony in preconservation phase. It was the first PVA study for this species, in which all the parameters used in the analysis were based on the study population, instead of the congeneric Hawaiian Monk Seal. Prior to this study, although monk seals have been frequently sighted by local people in the region, status of the Mediterranean monk seals and presence of thesuitable habitats for the species in the Gulf of iskenderun was unknown. Therefore, population status of the Mediterranean monk seal in the Gulf of iskenderun and suitable habitats were investigated. In total, 30 caves were discovered and 7 of them were classified suitable for the Mediterranean monk seal. In addition, a monk seal information network was established in the region in order to gain information about the species especially when the individuals are sighted (alive, injured or death). In total, 51 sighting reports were obtained from local people via the Mediterranean monk seal information network during the study period. Since there are sampling difficulties due to critical status of the Mediterranean monk seal, alternative sampling techniques were investigated in orderto find answers to questions related to the monk seal colony inhabiting in the northeastern Mediterranean. For identification of the individuals, comparison of the individuals and monitoring the individuals, 3D model construction technique from photographs was tested as an alternative photoidentification technique for the Mediterranean monk seal. It was found that at least 100 reference points wereneeded to construct the 3D model of the monk seal.

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Plastics are currently one of the most widely distributed litter in marine ecosystems worldwide. The floating fraction of these debris are estimated to represent about 1% of the plastics that enter into the marine environment where subtropical ocean gyres are considered to be the main convergence zones of floating plastics. The dense social system around the Mediterranean Sea pressures this environment being aggravated due to its semi-enclosed condition. Concern about plastic waste has been increasing in recent years due to the adverse effects it can cause on the Mediterranean ecological systems, its persistence in the environment and the consequences for social systems.The problem of plastic pollution has a profound social origin. In this context, this work is aimed to assess the current state of the problem of floating plastic debris in the Central and Western Mediterranean in both environmental and social systems. From the ecological point of view, the surface of the Mediterranean was sampled on three different spatial scales; a regional macro scale in the Northwestern-Central Med. Sea, a regional micro scale in the Balearic Islands (Spain) and a local scale focused on the current MPA of the Menorca Channel (Balearic Islands). In addition, a pilot seasonal study was carried out in the local scale. The distribution and concentrations observed along the sea surface confirmed the omnipresence and persistence of plastic waste in marine ecosystems, resulting in maximum concentrations of particles off the NW coast of Ibiza Island (Spain) and concentration by weight near to the Gulf of Taranto (Italy). The results of the 139 samples analyzed in total confirm the significant superiority of microplastics on the colbded waste observed in the Mediterranean surface. In general, the concentration of plastic waste was higher in the areas near the coast, with concentrations significantly higher in the Balearic Islands than in the rest of the Mediterranean. However, the seasonal distribution of plastic concentrations seems to be influenced by multiple factors in which particles appear to be directed by oceanographic variables, while the weight by social variables.From a social point of view, the perception and awareness of three key stakeholders in the decision-making processes (experts, public administrators and business agents) and beach users on the island of Mallorca were assessed. Perceptions of the plastic issue were explored by applying a mixed methodology in three focus groups formed by Mallorcan stakeholders. The participants' broad view of plastic problems was demonstrated, in which topics covering most of the material's life cycle were developed. The main problems detected were centered within the social systems, where the excess of plastic used in the production and consumption processes was considered the main problem of plastic by the three groups. However, its approach to the definition of the problem was limited to the areas in which stakeholders were defined. Through a questionnaire distributed on the beaches, the perception and awareness of its users was analyzed. The result showed that users perceived plastics as an important environmental problem whose main causes are plastic excess and lack of public awareness, as well as, present a rejection attitude to the waste found on the beaches that influences the user's selection.The results presented in this doctoral thesis contribute to the development and application of knowledge of the state of plastic pollution in the Mediterranean Sea in the context of social-ecological systems.
Los plásticos son actualmente uno de los residuos más ampliamente distribuido en los ecosistemas marinos a nivel mundial. La fracción flotante de estos residuos se estima que representan alrededor de 1% de los plásticos que entran en los ambientes marinos y los giros oceánicos subtropicales son considerados como las principales zonas de convergencia de los plásticos flotantes. Los densos sistemas sociales alrededor del Mar Mediterráneo presionan este ambiente que se ve agravado debido a su condición de mar semi-cerrado. La preocupación porlos residuos plásticos ha ido aumentando en los últimos años debido a los efectos adversos que pueden causar en los sistemas ecológicos del Mediterráneo, por su persistencia en el medio y las consecuencias para los sistemas sociales. El problema de la contaminación por plásticos tiene un profundo origen social. En este contexto, nuestro tiene por objetivo valorar el estado actual de la problemática de los residuos plásticos flotantes en el Mediterráneo Central y Occidental en ambos sistemas, el ambiental y social. Desde el ámbito ecológico, se muestreó la superficie del Mediterráneo en tres diferentes escalas espaciales; una de ámbito macro regional en el Noroeste-Centro del Mediterráneo, otra deámbito micro regional en las Islas Baleares y una local centrada en el actual Área Marina Protegida del Canal de Menorca (Islas Baleares – España). Además, en esta última escala se incluyó un estudio piloto estacional. La distribución y concentraciones observadas a lo largo de la superficie marina confirmaron la omnipresencia y persistencia de los residuos plásticos en los ecosistemas marinos, resultando los valores máximos concentración de partículas frente a la costa NW de la isla de Ibiza (España) y de concentración por peso en las proximidadesdel Golfo de Taranto (Italia). Los resultados de las 139 muestras analizadas en total, confirma la ignificativa superioridad de microplásticos sobre el resto de tamaños de partícula observados en la superficie del Mediterráneo. En general, la concentración de los residuos plásticos fue superior en las zonas cercanas a costa, siendo las concentraciones significativamente superiores en las costas de las Islas Baleares que en el resto del Mediterráneo. Sin embargo, la distribuciónestacional de las concentraciones de los plásticos parece estar influenciada por múltiples factores en la que las partículas parece estar dirigidas por las variables oceanográficas, mientras que el peso por las variables sociales. Desde el punto de vista social, se evaluaron la percepción y concienciación de tres stakeholders clave en los procesos de toma de decisiones (expertos,administradores públicos y agentes de empresa) y de los usuarios de la playa en la isla de Mallorca. Se exploraron las percepciones sobre la problemática del plástico aplicando una metodología mixta en tres “focus groups” formados por stakeholders mallorquines. Se demostró la amplia visión de los participantes en relación con los problemas del plástico, en los que se desarrollaron temas que abarcaron la amplia mayoría del ciclo de vida del material. Los principales problemas detectados estuvieron centrados dentro de los sistemas sociales, donde el exceso de plástico utilizado en los procesos de producción y consumo fue considerado el principal problema del plástico por los tres grupos. Sin embargo, su aproximación a la definición del problema se limitó a los ámbitos en los que stakeholders estuvieron definidos. A través de un cuestionario repartido en las playas, se analizó la percepción y concienciación de sus usuarios. El resultado mostró que los usuarios percibieron los plásticos como un importante problema ambiental cuyas causas principales son el exceso de plástico y la falta de concienciación pública, así mismo, presentan una actitud de rechazo ante los residuos encontrados en las playas que influye en la selección del usuario.Los resultados presentados en esta tesis doctoral contribuyen al desarrollo y aplicación del conocimiento del estado de la contaminación por plásticos en el Mar Mediterráneo en el contexto de los sistemas socio-ecológicos.

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This paper reviewed the mechanisms of systemic inflammation and the nutritional statusof the individuals who suffer from chronic diseases including rheumatoid arthritis, systemiclupus erythematous, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, irritable bowel diseases includeulcerative colitis and Crohn’s disease, asthma, and atherosclerosis. Treatment modalities suchas diet regimens will also be discussed. The Anti-Inflammatory diet, Mediterranean Diet, and theDash diet will be discussed. Nutritional status and inflammation go hand in hand according tothe findings available today. There is still more research required to completely understand themechanisms that occur in inflammation.

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This study examines interest-formation and state-action in the Eastern Mediterranean countries of Egypt, Israel, Turkey and the Republic of Cyprus. In seeking answers to the questions on how interests of the respective countries can be explained, particularly within the area of natural gas, and possible consequences of different regional approaches, the study draws upon ideas in classical, structural, neoclassical realism and constructivism. The theoretical diversity enables the study to focus on international, state and domestic levels by way of qualitative content analysis as the selected methodology. The findings suggest that Egypt, Israel and Cyprus possess corresponding views in their regional outlook; including natural gas as a means for stability and economic growth, but also that these views contrast significantly with Turkey’s regional perspective. Additional findings show that interest-formation in all four states, despite coherence among Egypt, Israel and Cyprus, differentiates to a large degree. The chief reason is that interest-formation appears to occur within international, state and domestic levels. Regarding the second question, the study finds that the different and often conflicting regional approaches on natural gas of Cyprus and Turkey, which are based upon fundamentally different premises, pose risk for heightened tensions between both Cyprus, Turkey and the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus.

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Avui dia a Espanya i en moltes regions del món s'enfronten al problema d'escassetat d'aigua i la disminució de les seves ofertes. D'altra banda, les projeccions dels models climàtics preveuen que l'escassetat d'aigua es convertirà en un dels problemes més importants en moltes zones del món. Aquest seriòs problema fa que sigui urgent millorar l’eficiència en l’ús d’aigua. Considerant aquest aspecte, l'objectiu general d'aquesta tesis ha estat millorar l'eficiència del reg mitjançant la utilització de nous protocols de reg en dos espècies d’arbres, cirerers (Prunus avium) i de platan d’ombra (Platanus x hispanica) per a produir fusta. Mitjançant l'aplicació de diferents estratègies de reg deficitari basades en mesures de la màxima contracció diària del diámetre del tronc (MCD) combinat amb la mesura de l'estat de l'aigua al sòl. Els assajos van ser realitzats els anys 2009 i 2010, en un hivernacle (primer capítol) i en camp obert (segon i tercer capítol) a les instal•lacions de l'IRTA a Torre Marimon. Els objectius del primer capítol van ser avaluar si la MCD és un bon indicador de l’estat hídric del cirerer a partir de les relacions amb altres indicadors fisiològics i ambientals; així mateix, es va obtenir un valor llindar d'aquesta variable per a utilitzar-lo en la programació de reg. Com s'esperava els arbres ben regats i els arbres estressats van presentar diferències significatives en les variables fisiològiques: conductància estomàtica foliar (gs), potencial hídric foliar de migdia (md) i el flux de saba diari (Qd); el potencial matricial del substrat (s) va disminuir a valors de - 33 kPa i el corresponent valor de MCD va ser aproximadament de 0.30 mm. Aquests valors són considerats llindars potencials per a planificar el reg cirerers joves. Aquests valors corresponen a un md de -2.3 MPa i una gs de 50 mmol m-2 s-1, els quals indiquen estrès sever. En la part B del primer capítol, l'objectiu era explorar si la sequera afecta el patró diàri i horari dels dos indicadors de l’estat hídric mesurats en continu com son la variació del diàmetre del tronc i el flux de saba. Els arbres estresats mostren un increment significatiu de la MCD i un decrement del flux de saba respecte als arbres ben regats. La MCD és més sensible que el SF diàri front l'estrès per sequera, principalment a causa de la variabilitat més gran del SF entre arbres. En els cicles diàris, la variació del diàmetre del tronc i el flux de saba estan relacionats per un bucle que es comporta diferent quan estàn ben regats o estan estressats. La variació del pendent de la relació entre les dues varibles entre les 8 i les 16 hores en situacions de sequera pot ser un indicador d’estrés. Els objectius del segon capítol van ser intentar millorar la gestió de reg en arbres, cirerer i plàtan d’ombra, mitjançant la implantació de nous protocols de reg deficitari regulat (RDImds) basat en el valor absolut de la MCD i el potencial matricial del sòl (s), també es va combinar amb l’us d’aigua regenerada en cirerers . Els resultats indiquen que no va haver cap efecte negatiu associat amb l’aplicació del tractament RDI en el creixement en diàmetre, alçada i cobertura verda relativa, ni en la conductància estomàtica en ambdues especies. La qualitat d’aigua de reg tampoc va afectar al creixement dels cirerers El tractament RDImds ha estalviat aigua sense cap efecte negatiu sobre el creixement de l'arbre, amb el mateix comportament quan s’ha regat amb aigua regenerada o aigua de pou. El protocol aplicat en 2009 podria ser recomanat per a cirerers joves, i el protocol aplicat en 2010 podria ser recomanat per als plàtans. En el tercer capítol, l'objectiu va ser evaluar un protocol de programació de reg basat en el s i la señal de laMCD (MCDRDI/MCD100%Etc) en cirerer i en plàtan d’ombra. Els resultats van indicar que tractaments de RDI basats en la señal de MCD no van tenir efecte negatiu en els indicadors de creixement dels arbres, ni en la MCD ni en la gs. El tractament RDIsenyal va estalviar el 20-30% de l'aigua en les dues espècies. Així com en el tractament RDImds, el protocol aplicat en 2009 es podria recomanar per als cirerers joves i el protocol utilitzat en 2010 es podria recomanar per a plàtans d’ombra. Aquest darrer tractament té la desventatja que es necessita un control, però a la vegada evita els problemes de la influència de les condicions ambientals en la MCD del tractament RDImds.
Hoy en día en España y en muchas regiones del mundo se enfrentan al problema de la escasez deagua y la disminución de sus suministros. Por otra parte, las proyecciones de los modelos climáticospreveen que la escasez de agua se convertirá en uno de los problemas más importantes en muchaszonas del mundo. La gravedad de problema hace que sea necesario mejorar la eficiencia del uso delagua. Considerando lo anterior, el objetivo general de esta tesis es mejorar la eficiencia del riegomediante la utilización de nuevos protocolos de gestión de riego en dos especies de árboles: cerezos(Prunus avium) y plátano de sombra (Platanus x hispanica) para producir madera. Mediante laaplicación de diferente estrategias de riego deficitario basadas en las medidas de la máximacontracción diaria del tronco (MCD) combinado con la medida del estado hídrico del suelo. Losensayos se realizaron los años 2009 y 2010, en un invernadero (primer capítulo) y en campo(segundo y tercer capítulo) en las instalaciones del IRTA en Torre Marimon. Los objetivos delprimer capítulo fueron evaluar si la MCD es un buen indicador del estado hídrico del cerezo a partirde las relaciones con otros indicadores fisiológicos y ambientales; asimismo, se obtuvo un valorumbral de esta variable para utilizarlo en la programación del riego Como se esperaba, los árbolesbien regados y los estresados presentaron diferencias significativas en todas las variablesfisiológicas: conductancia estomática (gs), potencial hídrico de la hoja al mediodía ( md) y flujo desavia diario (Qd); el potencial matricial del substrato ( s) disminuyó hasta -33, y el correspondientevalor de MCD fue aproximadamente 0.30 mm. Estos valores se consideran umbrales potencialespara la programación del riego de árboles jóvenes de cerezos. Estos valores se corresponden a un -2 -1 md de -2.3 MPa y una gs de 50mmol m s , los cuales indican estrés hídrico severo. En la parte Bdel primer capítulo B, el objetivo fue explorar si la sequía afecta al patrón diario y horario de dosindicadores continuos del estado hídrico como son la variación del diámetro del tronco y el flujo desavia. Los árboles estresados mostraron un incremento significativo de la MCD y un decremento delSF diario respecto a los bien regados. La MCD es más sensible a la sequía que el SF diario, debidoprincipalmente a la mayor variabilidad entre árboles del segundo. En los ciclos diarios, la variacióndel diámetro del tronco y el flujo de savia horario están relacionados por un bucle que se comportadiferente cuando está regado o estresado. La variación de la pendiente de la relación entre las dosvariables entre las 8 y las 16 horas en situaciones de sequía puede ser un indicador de estrés. Losobjetivos del segundo capítulo fueron intentar mejorar la gestión del riego en árboles, cerezo yplátano de sombra mediante la implantación de nuevos protocolos de riego deficitario reguladobasados en el valor absoluto de MCD (RDImds) y el potencial matricial de suelo ( s), también secombinó con el uso de agua regenerada en cerezos. Los resultados indicaron que no hubo ningúnefecto negativo relacionado con los tratamientos de RDI en el crecimiento en diámetro y altura deltronco ni en la cobertura verde, ni en la conductancia estomática en ambas especies. El tratamientoRDImds ha ahorrado agua sin ningún efecto en el crecimiento de los árboles, con el mismocomportamiento cuando se ha regado con agua regenerada o agua de pozo. El protocolo aplicado en2009 podría ser recomendado para cerezos jóvenes, y el protocolo aplicado en 2010 podríarecomendarse para plátanos. En el tercer capítulo, el objetivo fue evaluar un protocolo de riegobasado en el s y la señal de la MCD (MCDRDI/MCD100%Etc). Los resultados indicaron quetratamientos de RDIseñal no tuvieron ningún efecto negativo sobre los indicadores de crecimiento delos árboles ni en la MCD ni en la gs. El tratamiento RDIseñal ahorró un 20 - 30% de agua en las dosespecies. Així com en el tractament RDImds, el protocolo aplicado en 2009 se podría recomendarpara cerezos jóvenes y el protocolo utilizado en 2010 se podría recomendar para plátanos. Esteúltimo tratamiento tiene la desventaja que necesita un control, pero a su vez evita los problemas de lainfluencia de las condiciones ambientales en la MCD del tratamiento RDImds.
Nowadays in Spain and many regions in the world face the problem of water scarcity and decreasingof its supplies. Moreover, climatic model projected that water scarcity will become one of the mostimportant problems in many areas of the world. This serious problem supposes an urgent need toimprove water use efficiency. Considering this problems, the general objective of this work was toimprove irrigation efficiency by using new irrigation management protocol in two different speciescherry trees (Prunus avium) and plane trees (Platanus x hispanica) for timber production. Byapplying different deficit irrigation strategies, based on the dendrometry measurements and otherplant based water status indicators combined by soil water status measurements. The essays wereconducted in 2009 and 2010; the first parts were conducted in one greenhouse and the second andthird parts in the open field at IRTA Torre Marimon facilities. The objectives of the first chapterwere to evaluate if MDS is a reliable indicator of cherry plants water status through its relationshipwith physiological and environmental variables; moreover, to study from these relationships thepossibility of derivation a threshold value of MDS that indicated maximum water stress level inorder to use it for irrigation scheduling. As expected well irrigated and stressed trees presentedsignificant differences in all physiological variables: stomatal conductance (gs), midday leaf waterpotential ( md) and daily sap flow (Qd); substrate water potential ( s) decreased till -33kPa and thecorresponding MDS value about 0.30 mm. Those values could be considered potential threshold forirrigation scheduling of young cherry trees. Those values corresponded to md of -2.3 MPa and gs of50 mmol m-2 s-1, indicative of severe water stress. In part B of this chapter, the objective was toexplore if drought affected the daily and hourly pattern of two continuous indicators of water status,trunk diameter variation and sap flow. Stressed trees showed a significant MDS increase and SFdecrease respect to irrigated trees. MDS was more sensitive than SF in front of drought stress,mainly due to the higher variability of SF from tree to tree. In the daily cycle values, trunk diametervariation and sap flow were related to each other via a loop that differs according to tree waterstatus. The change in the slope of the relationship between the two varibles between 8 and 16 hoursin drought conditions can be an indicator of stress. The aims of the second chapter were to improvemanaging irrigation in woody trees, cherry and plane tree, by applying a regulate deficit irrigationprotocols based on the absolute value of MDS (RDImds) and soil water potential ( s), combined byreclaimed water in cherry trees. Results indicated no negative effect related with RDI treatments wasnoticed on cherry or plane trees growth as no any significant differences was noticed in trunkdiameter growth rate (TGR), height and relative green cover (RGC)neither in stomatal conductancein both species. Water quality neither affected the grothw of cherry trees. The RDImds treatmentcombined with s saved water without any negative effect on tree growth, with the same behaviorwhen irrigated with reclaimed water or well water. The protocol applied in 2009 would berecommended for young cherry trees, and the protocol applied in 2010 would be recommended forplane trees. In the third chapter, the objective was to evaluate an irrigation scheduling protocol basedon the information obtained from soil status s and MDS signal (MDSRDI/MDS100%Etc) as precisiontools for automated adjustment of deficit irrigation in cherry and plane tree. Results indicated thatRDIsignal and s protocols had no negative effect on tree growth indicators TGR and RGC; also noclear differences were noticed between well irrigated and RDIsignal trees in MDS and gs. Ourirrigation scheduling protocol based on MDSsignal and s can be considered a valid protocol forschedule irrigation in woody trees as it helped us to save about 20- 30% of water in both specieswithout any negative effect on the trees growth. As well as in the treatment RDImds, the protocolapplied in 2009 could recommend for young cherry and protocol used in 2010 could recommendbananas for shade. The latter treatment has disadvantage it takes control, yet avoid the problems ofthe influence of environmental conditions on MCD treatment RDImds.

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Abstract:

This thesis examines warfare, social power, and the state in central Italy for the period between 900 and 343 BC.1 The goal of this research is to better understand how warfare fit into the dialogue of social power in Etruria and Rome. This is achieved through the fulfilment of a number of aims. The first is to understand the patterns of warfare present in central Italy, as these can help us better understand the social aspects of conflict in the region. The project assumes that the practice of warfare is important for understanding its role in this dialogue, and thus an analysis of arms, armour, and tactics is also necessary. The second aim is to understand how warfare and politics affected one another. The condottieri paradigm is challenged and the strength of central Italian states asserted. The third aim is to explain the interaction between warfare and economic power, and the interaction between these two aspects of social power. The fourth aim is similar, and analyzes the connections that are visible between warfare and religion. Through these aims, this project creates a clearer picture of warfare in Etruria and Rome from the Iron Age to the Archaic Period. It argues that the exchange and dialogue of social power was not alienated from the state, and that independent warfare would have been of less value than it was probably worth. To this end, the Servian Constitution is re-examined and the idea of an early Roman hoplite phalanx, and single class army, is rejected. The original contribution of this work is in reasserting the position of the state in Tyrrhenian warfare and rejecting the idea that private interest was more powerful.

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The recent growth of low-density urban developments in the Mediterranean coast has led to an increase in the number of private domestic gardens. This thesis examines the flora, features and management practices of 258 private gardens in the Alt Empordà region in Catalonia. We also calculated water requirements of gardens based on species composition and land cover, and determined whether they can be predicted from the socioeconomic, demographic and cultural characteristics of households. Of the 635 taxa identified, 68% were exotic. Moreover, 39 species have been considered potentially invasive in Spain, although only 25 were present within the limits of the adjacent Aiguamolls de l’Empordà Natural Park. The distribution of garden floras was significantly related to different socioeconomic and demographic gradients, such as the occupancy rate of the house, the origin of the residents, their income level and the percentage of unemployed members.
L’augment recent dels espais urbans de baixa densitat a la costa mediterrània ha comportat un increment del nombre de jardins privats. La present tesis estudia la flora, les característiques i les pràctiques de gestió de 258 jardins privats a la comarca de l’Alt Empordà. També es van calcular les necessitats hídriques dels jardins d’acord amb la seva composició i estructura vegetal, i es va determinar si es podien predir a partir de les característiques socioeconòmiques, demogràfiques i culturals de les llars. Dels 635 tàxons identificats, el 68% eren exòtics. A més, 39 espècies han estat considerades com a potencialment invasores a Espanya, encara que només 25 són presents dins dels límits del Parc Natural dels Aiguamolls de l’Empordà. La distribució de la flora del jardins es va relacionar significativament amb diferents gradients socioeconòmics i demogràfics, com ara la taxa d’ocupació, l’origen dels residents, el nivell d’ingressos o el percentatge de membres en atur.

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My doctoral thesis concerns the evolution of citizenship and social distinction between the later Antiquity and early Middle Ages in the Iberian peninsula: broadly from the fifth to the early twelfth centuries. Its focus is broad, and it seeks to highlight how social and legal distinctions which characterised the later Roman society survived within the early Middle Ages. Two key elements receive a particular attention in this study: first, the evolution of the Roman concept of dignitas, seen as a major source of social privilege, from Roman-pagan to Christian society; second, the relationship between citizenship and social status in early medieval society. Dealing with the latter point I concentrate on the legal distinction between upper and lower classes in early medieval Spain. I argue that, while in early medieval Iberian society the value of citizenship underwent deep transformations (or even disappeared), the honestiores/{uaniliores distinction, or other related forms of social distinction between upper and lower classes, survived. The criteria of social and legal prestige were not to be found in citizenship, but in other sources of privilege such as wealth, birth, status, and favour of the ruling authority. Privileges and disqualifications continued to characterise members of the higher and lower ranks in both Christian and Islamic societies. The first chapter opens the dissertation with the analysis of a new legal language that reflected the increasing influence of Christian Church in the later Roman idea of citizen. The elaboration of the concept of dignitas both in later Roman legislation and in Christian literature is investigated. The second chapter examines the influence of the later Roman law in defining social status and citizenship, in the Visigothic kingdom. The analysis of the relationship between dignitas and citizenship in Visigothic society is offered. The third considers the concept of `citizenship' in Muslim Spain. It focuses on the social differentiation which characterised Islamic society. Finally the fourth chapter explores the relationship between higher and lower classes in the Christian kingdoms of Asturias and Leon.

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Entre 1999 i 2003 es va desenvolupar un projecte Life de restauració a la maresma de La Pletera, afectada per un pla urbanització, i a la llacuna del Ter Vell, amb un elevat grau d'eutròfia (aiguamolls del Baix Ter, NE Península Ibèrica). L'objectiu d'aquesta tesi és establir el funcionament d'ambdós ecosistemes, analitzar-ne la problemàtica ambiental i avaluar els efectes de la restauració.
A la maresma de la Pletera, es va analitzar el paper de la hidrologia en la composició i dinàmica dels nutrients i del zooplàncton en cinc llacunes, tres de les quals havien estat creades dins el projecte de restauració com a nous refugis per una espècie de peix amenaçada (Aphanius iberus). La hidrologia es va caracteritzar per un llarg període de confinament sense entrades d'aigua, interromput de manera irregular per inundacions puntuals. La dinàmica del nitrogen inorgànic es va relacionar amb les entrades d'aigua, mentre que la del fòsfor, del nitrogen total i de la matèria orgànica es va relacionar amb els processos d'acumulació i reciclatge intern durant el confinament. El zooplàncton es va analitzar mitjançant la combinació d'aproximacions taxonòmiques i de mides. L'estructura de mides de la comunitat es va veure més afectada per les interaccions tròfiques (depredació i competència) mentre que l'estructura taxonòmica va ser més sensible a factors abiòtics (nutrients). El ràpid creixement de la població A. iberus en les noves llacunes va suggerir que aquestes havien proporcionat l'hàbitat adequat per a l'espècie, almenys a curt termini.
Les actuacions de restauració a la llacuna del Ter Vell es van centrar en la millora de la qualitat de l'aigua mitjançant (1) la construcció d'uns aiguamolls per depurar l'aigua d'entrada i (2) el dragat del sediment en diversos punts. Simultàniament a la restauració, però de forma independent, la gestió agrícola de l'aigua va reduir dràsticament el cabal d'entrada d'aigua dolça a la llacuna, provocant un canvi en el règim hídric. Es van analitzar els efectes a curt termini d'aquest canvi sobre la limnologia i el zooplàncton de la llacuna. Abans del canvi, la hidrologia era artificial ja que s'havia prolongat l'entrada d'aigua dolça d'acord amb la demanda agrícola, i per tant la llacuna presentava una elevada taxa de renovació de l'aigua i majors concentracions de nutrients. Després del canvi, la hidrologia va dependre més del clima, es van reduir les entrades d'aigua i es va allargar el període de confinament. La composició y dinàmica dels nutrients va tendir a assemblar-se a l'observada a les llacunes de la maresma, mentre que la comunitat del zooplàncton no ho va fer. L'estat ecològic de la llacuna va millorar després del canvi en el règim hídric.
Between 1999 and 2003, a restoration Life project was developed in La Pletera salt marshes, affected by an urbanisation plan, and in the Ter Vell lagoon, a highly eutrophic lagoon (Baix Ter Wetlands, NE Iberian Peninsula). The aim of this thesis is to establish the natural functioning of both ecosystems, analyze their environmental problematic and also to evaluate the effects of the restoration measures.
In La Pletera salt marshes, the role of the hydrological regime in the nutrient and zooplankton composition and dynamics was analysed in five brackish lagoons. Three of them were created in the framework of the restoration project as new refuges for an endangered fish species (A. iberus). The hydrology was determined by a prolonged period of confinement without water inputs, irregularly interrupted by sudden flooding events. While the dynamics of inorganic nitrogen depended on the water inputs variability, dynamics of phosphorus, total nitrogen and organic matter was related more to the cumulative mechanisms and internal recycling during the confinement periods. The zooplankton community structure was analysed by means of the combination of taxon- and size-based approaches. Whereas the community size structure was more affected by trophic interactions (predation and competition), the taxonomic structure appeared to be more sensitive to abiotic factors (nutrients). The fast growth of the size population of A. iberus in the new lagoons suggested that they had provided a suitable refuge for this species, at least in the short-term.
Restoration actions in the Ter Vell lagoon were focused on the improvement of the water quality by means of (1) wetlands construction to reduce nutrient inputs and (2) sediment dredging. Simultaneously, but independent of the restoration activities, water management in agriculture drastically reduced the freshwater inflow to the lagoon and, therefore, changed the hydrological regime. The short-term effects of this hydrological change on the limnological characteristics and the zooplankton of the lagoon were analysed. Before the change, the hydrology was artificial since the freshwater flooding period was prolonged due to the high agricultural demand. As a result, the lagoon showed a high water turnover rate and high nutrient concentrations. After the change, hydrology was climate-dependent, with scarce water inputs and prolonged confinement periods. Then, the nutrient composition and dynamics tended to be more similar to those observed in the salt marsh lagoons. However, zooplankton did not tend to resemble to that of the salt marsh lagoons. The ecological status of the Ter Vell lagoon was improved after the hydrological change.

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This thesis explores the relations between the Druze emir Fakhr al-Din II Ma'n and three successive Medici Grand Dukes between 1605 and 1633. Eschewing traditional historiographical concerns with the origins of Lebanese nationalism and the cultural encounter between East and West, I have sought first and above all to locate relations between this powerful emir and the Court of Tuscany within the broader context of Mediterranean history.
I suggest that the actions of Fakhr al-Din and of the Medici Grand Dukes have to be understood in relation to broad, long-term trends in the economic and social history of the Mediterranean. I explore two of these trends in detail: the breakdown in commercial and diplomatic relations between Florence (and then Tuscany) and the Ottoman empire during the course of the sixteenth century; the bargaining between the Porte and provincial power-holders in the Syrian provinces in the century following the Ottoman conquest.

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Los corredores riparios en ambientes semiáridos mediterráneos son ecosistemas de gran biodiversidad y complejidad. En ellos confluyen una gran variedad de perturbaciones naturales capaces de crear un mosaico espacial y temporal con pocos paralelos en otros ecosistemas. Sin embargo, a pesar de su valor, los ecosistemas riparios están amenazados debido a los altos niveles de intervención humana. La construcción de presas (y la consecuente manipulación del caudal) está considerada como la perturbación humana más importante que se cierne sobre ellos. Esta tesis ha tenido como objetivo analizar el ecosistema ripario, abarcando diferentes escalas espaciales y temporales, y centrándose en los factores que influyen en la distribución, estructura, composición, calidad y dinámica de su vegetación, tanto en tramos naturales como hidrológicamente alterados de ríos mediterráneos, concretamente de la Demarcación Hidrográfica del Júcar (Este de España).Para lograr este objetivo, se han hecho los siguientes aportes a la investigación: A) Determinar los patrones de distribución de especies leñosas riparias en el gradiente transversal de la ribera y definir grupos de especies con respuesta similar a las condiciones físicas del hábitat; B) Comparar la respuesta de dichas especies en tramos naturales y alterados hidrológicamente; C) Definir curvas de respuesta y gremios hidrológicos de especies en tramos con régimen natural; D) Establecer los principales factores que determinan la calidad del hábitat ripario y fluvial y los patrones longitudinales de la composición florística, así como de las características del hábitat fluvial en un segmento hidrológicamente alterado; E) Describir los cambios espacio-temporales en la estructura y complejidad de la vegetación, y los cambios temporales en el régimen de caudales del corredor ripario de un tramo hidrológicamente alterado.Los objetivos anteriores fueron abordados con diferentes metodologías que implicaron la combinación de diversas fuentes de información y un esfuerzo importante en la toma de datos en varios lugares de estudio de los ríos Cabriel, Mijares y Serpis. Para cumplir con los objetivos A y B, se llevaron a cabo un muestreo de suelos y un muestreo georreferenciado de vegetación a través de transectos transversales al cauce en dos tramos naturales y tres regulados. Los datos fueron analizados con estadística robusta y multivariante. Para cumplir el objetivo C, el muestreo georreferenciado anterior (junto con un muestreo dendrocronológico) fue acoplado con un modelo hidráulico en los dos tramos naturales, con el fin de obtener la serie temporal de cotas del agua a la que habían estado expuestas cada una de las plantas durante su vida. La respuesta de las especies y su posible agregación en gremios hidrológicos fue comparada mediante estadística robusta en relación a la duración de la inundación, duración de la inundación durante el período de crecimiento, duración continua de la inundación, frecuencia de inundación y elevación de la planta respecto al caudal base. Para lograr el objetivo D, toda la sección regulada del río Serpis (desde la presa Beniarrés - hasta la desembocadura; 40 km) se dividió en segmentos. En cada uno de ellos se llevó a cabo un inventario de flora y se aplicaron índices hidromorfológicos. Los segmentos fueron agrupados de acuerdo a su composición florística y características del hábitat fluvial utilizando diferentes técnicas de estadística multivariante. Finalmente se discutieron los factores principales que controlan los patrones espaciales de la composición florística, las características del hábitat fluvial, la calidad del hábitat ribereño y la heterogeneidad del hábitat fluvial. Para alcanzar el objetivo E, se combinaron series históricas de caudales y su manipulación humana con imágenes aéreas históricas (reveladoras de cambios en la cubierta vegetal) y observaciones de campo de la distribución de edades de la vegetación y morfología del corredor ripario del río Mijares en los últimos 60 años. De esta información, se extrajeron métricas del paisaje e índices hidrológicos para identificar y resumir los cambios espacio-temporales en la estructura de la ribera y en el régimen de caudales.El estudio a escala transversal nos ayudó a comprender en cada uno de los tramos la zonación de las especies leñosas riparias en función de la morfología y características del suelo, revelando que la alteración del caudal puede influir en la modificación de los patrones posicionales de las especies. Se definieron tres gremios hidrológicos: ¿altamente tolerante a la inundación¿, ¿tolerante intermedio¿ y ¿de transición entre ripario y terrestre¿. El estudio a escala longitudinal sugirió que la respuesta de la vegetación a un cambio hidrológico es altamente dependiente de la geomorfología local. Se constató que los factores principales que determinan los patrones hidromorfológicos y florísticos son un régimen de caudales artificial y altamente variable (identificado en los segmentos con peor calidad del hábitat ripario y fluvial), la presencia de estructuras laterales en el cauce y las características geomorfológicas. Como efectos importantes de la regulación del caudal a largo plazo, el estudio a escala espacio-temporal reveló un aumento en la cobertura y densidad de la vegetación leñosa, una deriva en la composición de especies y una disminución en las áreas de sedimento desnudo (esencial para el reclutamiento de las especies riparias pioneras), junto con una reducción sincrónica en la complejidad de la ribera. Estos cambios estarían relacionados con la disminución de la magnitud y variabilidad de los caudales en las últimas seis décadas. Solo una mejor comprensión de los procesos ecohidrológicos y de las implicaciones de la alteración hidrológica sobre los ecosistemas riparios mediterráneos podrá apoyar la integración eficaz de estos sistemas en las decisiones de gestión del agua.
Garófano Gómez, V. (2013). Riparian vegetation patterns according to hydrogeomorphological factors at different spatial and temporal scales in Mediterranean rivers [Tesis doctoral no publicada]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/29395
TESIS

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Mestrado em Engenharia Florestal e dos Recursos Naturais - Gestão de Recursos Naturais - Instituto Superior de Agronomia
The Mediterranean rivers being less resilient than other aquatic ecosystems are particularly susceptible to threats of anthropogenic nature, so their need for protection and recovery is higher. This concern is even more pressing in water courses involved by unnatural uses, such as the streams included in the Parque Natural de Sintra-Cascais (PNSC), justifying actions that seek recovery of its ecological status. In this context, firstly, I evaluated habitats and ripícolan zones of these streams, and sampled their fish communities. In a second phase, I developed an integrated index to assess the conservation status of these streams, which includes local and regional variables, and I studied the interaction between environment and fish assemblages. The studied systems are embedded in an area with strong influence of urban and agriculture uses, therefore showed average to high levels of degradation. The fish communities showed some longitudinal zonation and less tolerant species were more abundant in slightly less degraded reaches. Framed both on the principles of the Water Framework Directive (WFD) and the goals of the development plan for the PNSC, an action plan was developed in order to improve the morphologic condition and integrity of the fish communities of these river systems

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En 1971 el convenio internacional RAMSAR sobre la Conservación de los Humedales y las Aves Acuáticas comienza ya a fomentar la investigación sobre los humedales, refiriéndose a la necesidad de una mejor información científica para evaluar correctamente la situación de los mismos. Más recientemente la Directiva Marco Europea del Agua (DMA) establece que son precisos principios comunes para mejorar la protección de las aguas comunitarias en sus aspectos cuantitativos y cualitativos y proteger los ecosistemas acuáticos, así como los humedales que dependen directamente de ellos. Este es el caso de los humedales mediterráneos semiáridos salinos. Sin embargo, el avanzado grado de terrestrialización de estos ecosistemas y su alta estacionalidad, hacen que los indicadores propios utilizados para los ecosistemas acuáticos continentales no siempre puedan utilizarse en su caracterización y evaluación ecológica. Se hace pues, necesario buscar otros parámetros indicadores típicos de las especies vegetales y animales altamente adaptadas a estos singulares ambientes. De la misma forma, deben ser establecidos rangos particulares de los valores de dichos parámetros que indiquen los niveles de calidad ecológica en estos ecosistemas. Con el fin de definir indicadores del estado ecológico de estos ecosistemas se han investigado diferentes aspectos funcionales de los mismos a escala de cuenca y humedal y se han establecido relaciones entre ellos. A nivel de humedal se ha focalizado el estudio en las comunidades vegetales, mientras que a nivel de cuenca se han estudiado principalmente los usos de suelo de las mismas. Los objetivos específicos del trabajo han sido: (1) delimitación de las cuencas de drenaje que afectan a cada humedal y cartografía histórica de los usos de suelo en las mismas; (2) análisis de los cambios históricos de las especies vegetales perennes presentes en los humedales en relación a los cambios de usos de suelo en sus cuencas vertientes; (3) análisis cuantitativo y cualitativo por medio de muestreos de campo y teledetección de las comunidades vegetales presentes en los diversos humedales en relación con el estudio de los usos de suelo en sus cuencas vertientes y (4) modelización espacio-dinámica de la evolución de las comunidades vegetales en el humedal de la Marina del Carmolí. Para ello. se seleccionaron 11 humedales de la Región de Murcia: Saladar de Cañada Brusca, Saladar de Matalentisco, Saladar de la Playa del Sombrerico, Saladar de la Boquera de Tabala, Saladar de Lo Poyo, Marina del Carmoli, Marina de Punta Galera, Humedal de Ajauque, Saladar de Derramadores, Humedal de las Salinas del Rasall y La Alcanara. La metodología usada se ha basado en la aplicación de diversos aspectos teórico-prácticos de la ecología, combinando el trabajo de campo con el de gabinete. Los parámetros indicadores y los procesos ecológicos que han sido estudiados, así como las técnicas metodológicas seguidas fueron las siguientes: (1) Identificación y caracterización de los humedales objeto de estudio (técnicas GIS, salidas de campo, bibliografía); (2) Estudio del estado cualitativo y cuantitativo de sus comunidades vegetales (Muestreos y mapeo por teledetección); (3) Modelización y estudio de las comunidades vegetales de los humedales y de las cuencas delimitadas (GIS) y (4) Estudio histórico de los usos de suelo en las cuencas de drenaje de los humedales (teledetección). Mediante el estudio y análisis estadístico de la relación entre los indicadores biológicos y de los indicadores paisajísticos se ha demostrado el grado de validez de los mismos como indicadores del estado ecológico de dichos ecosistemas y se han establecido diversos índices de estado ecológico de los humedales, así como una herramienta de modelado dinámico-espacial aplicada a los mismos.
Modelling and establishment of plant indicators of ecological status for semiarid Mediterranean saline wetlands In 1971 the international RAMSAR Convention on the Conservation of Wetlands and Waterfowl already began to encourage research on wetlands, referring to the need for better scientific information to properly assess the situation. More recently the European Water Framework Directive (WFD) provides the common principles that are needed to improve the protection of European waterbodies, qualitatively and quantitatively, and to protect the aquatic ecosystems and wetlands directly depending on them. This is the case of Mediterranean semiarid saline wetlands. However, the advanced degree of terrestrialization of these ecosystems and their high seasonality, make typical indicators of inland aquatic ecosystems not always applicable for their characterization, and therefore other indicator parameters should be included in their characterization, which are typical of the plant and animal species highly adapted to these unique environments. Likewise, particular ranges of values of indicator parameters should be established, thus indicating ecological quality levels in these ecosystems. In order to define indicators of the ecological status of these ecosystems, different functional aspects of them have been investigated, at watershed and wetland scale, and the relationships between them have been established. At the wetland scale our study has mainly focused on plant communities, while at the watershed scale land use has been mainly studied. The specific objectives of the study were: (1) the delineation of drainage basins affecting each wetland, as well as the historical mapping of land uses, (2) the analysis of historical changes of perennial plant taxa in the wetlands in relation to changes in land cover in their watersheds, (3) plant communities characterization and mapping through field sampling and remote sensing techniques and study of their relationship with the land cover at watershed scale and (4) spatio-dynamic modeling of the evolution of plant communities in the Marina del Carmolí wetland. We have selected 11 wetlands in the Region of Murcia: Cañada Brusca, Matalentisco, Sombrerico, Boquera Tabala, Lo Poyo, Marina del Carmolí, Marina Punta Galera, Ajauque, Derramadores, La Alcanara and Rasall. The methodology used was based on the application of various theoretical and practical aspects of ecology, combining fieldwork with cabinet. The indicator parameters and ecological processes that have been studied, as well as the methodological techniques followed were: (1) Identification and characterization of the study wetlands (GIS techniques, fieldtrips, bibliography), (2) qualitative and quantititative study of its plant communities (field sampling and mapping through remote sensing), (3) watershed and wetland plant communities modelling (GIS) and (4) historical mapping of land uses in the wetland watersheds through remote sensing. Through the study and statistical analysis of the relationships between biological and landscape indicators, their validity as ecological status indicators for these ecosystems has been demonstrated and various indices have been developed, as well as spatio-dynamic wetland modelling tools.

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Les milieux côtiers subissent de fortes pressions dues aux activités anthropiques. Ces pressions vont parfois impacter les écosystèmes benthiques. En Europe, des réglementations internationales, telle que la Directive Cadre sur l’Eau (DCE), ont vu le jour. La DCE a fixé un cadre pour obtenir le retour et le maintien d’un bon état écologique pour les masses d’eau côtières, jusqu’à un mile de la côte. Pour vérifier si ce bon état écologique est atteint, des outils de mesure adaptés et performants sont nécessaires. L’utilisation d’indices biotiques basés sur les faunes de foraminifères benthiques est un des moyens pour mesurer l’état des écosystèmes. Ces indices basés sur les faunes de foraminifères sont en pleine expansion, notamment en Méditerranée. En termes de méthodologie, nous avons pu améliorer une technique de concentration des foraminifères benthiques par séparation par densité, qui accélère le traitement des échantillons. L’indice TSI-Med a la particularité d’apporter une correction pour l’état trophique naturel, c’est-à-dire le taux d’enrichissem*nt naturel en matière organique, sur la base de la granulométrie du sédiment. Nos données suggèrent néanmoins que cette correction est encore insuffisante. Nous avons également comparé plusieurs indices biotiques basés sur les faunes de foraminifères benthiques le long des côtes méditerranéennes françaises. Les indices basés sur la diversité, notamment l’exp(H’bc), ne sont pas adaptés à notre zone d’étude oligotrophe. Les indices basés sur les groupes écologiques d’espèces que nous avons testés (TSI-Med, Foram-AMBI et FSI) sont plutôt bien corrélés. Le principal facteur qui va induire des différences entre ces indices est la liste d’assignation écologique des espèces. Trop d’espèces n’ont pas encore été assignées et l’assignation de plusieurs espèces majeures est problématique. Néanmoins, nous avons montré que ces indices sont efficaces à détecter l’impact d’un enrichissem*nt en matière organique diffus et/ou provenant de source ponctuelle, telle que les rejets de stations d’épuration (côte israélienne). Pour perfectionner ces indices, des efforts de caractérisation écologique des espèces doivent être poursuivis
Coastal environments suffer from anthropogenic activities. Various types of pressure can have large impacts on benthic ecosystems. In Europe, international regulations, such as the Water Framework Directive (WFD), have been implemented. The WFD aims to attain and sustain a good ecological status for all coastal waters, up to one mile from the coast. To verify whether this good status has been reached, adapted and efficient measuring tools are needed. The use of biotic indices based on foraminiferal faunas are a mean to assess the ecosystem status. The use of indices based on foraminiferal faunas rapidly increases, especially in the Mediterranean. In terms of methodology, we were able to improve a method to concentrate benthic foraminifera by density separation, which accelerates the sample treatment. The TSI-Med index includes a correction to take into account the natural trophic state, i.e., the natural enrichment rate in organic matter, on the basis of sediment grain size. However, our data suggest that the applied correction is still insufficient. We also compared several biotic indices based on benthic foraminiferal faunas along the French Mediterranean coast. Indices based on diversity, such as the exp(H’bc), are not suited for our oligotrophic study area. The results of three tested indices based on ecological groups (TSI-Med, Foram-AMBI, FSI) are well correlated. The main factor inducing differences between the indices is the list of ecological assignments for the various species. In general, too many species have not yet been assigned to ecological categories and the assignment of several major species is problematic. Nevertheless, we show that the indices are already efficient in detecting the impact of diffusive organic matter enrichment or enrichment from point sources, such as sewage outlets (Israelian coast). To further perfection the foraminiferal indices, the efforts of ecological assignments of species have to be continued

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Les rivières représentent la principale voie de transport de la matière organique particulaire (MOP) du continent vers le plateau continental et sont capables de rejeter d'importantes quantités de cette matire organique lors d'événements de crue, courtes mais violentes, communément associées aux tempêtes d'Est. La matière terrestre délivrée par les rivières lors des événements de crue est stockée sur le plateau continental. Ensuite, les conditions hydrodynamiques survenant sur le plateau sont capables de transférer cette matière vers le bassin profond, le long de canyons sous-marins. Cette étude a permis d'évaluer simultanément les variations de quantité et d'origine de la MOP dans plusieurs rivires se déversant en mer Méditerranée NO lors d'un événement de crue, mais aussi dans les particules sédimentées de deux piges à particules déployés sur le flanc sud du canyon du Cap de Creus et dans les sédiments superficiels le long de 4 radiales perpendiculaires au plateau continental du Golfe du Lion, réalisés en Mars 2011. Les résultats obtenus nous aideront à comprendre les échanges terre-mer
Rivers represent the primary pathway for particulate organic matter (POM) transport from continent to the continental shelf and are capable of discharging significant amounts of this organic matter during the occurrence of short but violent flash flood events, commonly associated with eastern storms. Terrestrial matter delivered by rivers during flash flood events is stored into continental shelf. Then, hydrodynamic conditions occurring at the shelf are capable of transferring this matter to the deep sea along submarine canyons. This study has allowed to simultaneously assess the variations of the quantity and origin of the POM in several rivers discharging into the NW Mediterranean Sea during a flash flood event, in the settling particles of two sediment traps deployed into the southern flank of the Cap de Creus canyon; and in the surficial sediments along 4 transects perpendicular to the continental shelf during March 2011. The obtained results will help us to understand land-sea exchanges

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Macrophyte systems are globally vulnerable to overgrazing, often shifting precipitously to functionally poorer alternative stable states triggered by herbivore population outbreaks. Sea urchin herbivory can cause shifts in shallow macrophyte systems in the Mediterranean (i.e. macroalgal communities and seagrass meadows) changing the structure of these communities to completely bare extensions; rocky macroalgal systems are particularly prone to barren formation. These sudden transitions are inherently surprising making it very difficult to manage the rich diversity and productivity these ecosystems support. This thesis attempts to address the uncertainty underlying these regime transitions by first identifying the location of critical thresholds in response to sea urchin stressors and then predicting how these thresholds vary under different environmental conditions. Specifically, it describes how inherently poor nutrient regions are more prone to catastrophic shifts related to two synergistic mechanisms, i) compensatory feeding by urchins in low nutrient regions and ii) higher rates of algal growth in high nutrient areas. Additionally, it identifies the principal regulatory processes determining variations in sea urchin numbers (main stressor) in the complex seascapes of mixed macroalgal communities and seagrass meadows that dominate shallow Mediterranean shores. Particularly, this thesis shows that habitat can determine when in the sea urchin’s life history this regulation occurs. While predation is the mostimportant agent of regulation in both macroalgal and seagrass meadows, populations are also highly influenced by migration and settlement processes. Finally, it describes the importance of identifying hotspots of functional predation (main regulating agent) across a wide stretch of coastline to implement management actions and preserve the sustainability of macrophyte ecosystems. In parallel, this thesis also tests the effectiveness of a widely-employed but rarely tested assay to measure rates of predation that was central to this work. The results of this assessment show that marking sea urchins in the field by piercing is a very reliable tool to measure predation rates, neither affecting the mortality of the marked organism nor enhancing its detectability by predators. Overall, the results presented here will enhance the predictability of catastrophic transitions in Mediterranean macrophyte systems and could potentially be extrapolated to other ecosystems in temperate seas.
Los ecosistemas de macrófitos son sistemas especialmente vulnerables al herbivorismo sobredimensionado. Estos, pueden sufrir cambios funcionales bruscos cuando las poblaciones de herbívoros crecen de manera descontrolada, precipitando hacia estados alternativos estables poco productivos. El herbivorismo de los erizos de mar puede ser causa de estos cambios de fase en los sistemas de macrófitos marinos costeros en el Mediterráneo (comunidades de macroalgas y praderas de fanerógamas marinas). Las comunidades de macroalgas son particularmente susceptibles a la presión de los erizos, que provoca importantes cambios estructurales en los sistemas rocosos dejando a su paso extensas zonas desérticas conocidas como blanquizales. Estos cambios de fase son difícilmente predecibles y como consecuencia, la diversidad y productividad de estos ecosistemas es muy difícil de gestionar. La presente tesis pretende reducir la incertidumbre asociada dichos cambios de fase, identificando primero, la posición del umbral crítico (presión de herbivorismo) que provoca la perdida de estructura y segundo, cómo este umbral puede variar en función de las condiciones ambientales específicas de una región. En particular, se describe como las zonas pobres en nutrientes son más susceptibles a los cambios de fase debido a i) compensación alimentaria en las zonas de bajos nutrientes y ii) aumento en las tasas de crecimiento de las algas en zonas de altos nutrientes. Adicionalmente,se identifican los principales procesos que determinan variaciones en las poblaciones de erizos de mar (estresor principal) en los ecosistemas costeros de macroalgas y fanerógamas marinas del Mediterráneo. En particular, se demuestra como el hábitat puede determinar el momento y los procesos en qué la regulación de las poblaciones tiene lugar. Finalmente, esta tesis describe la importancia de identificar los puntos calientes de depredación (principal agente regulador de las poblaciones de erizos) para la gestión sostenible de los ecosistemas de macrófitos costeros. En paralelo, se prueba la fiabilidad de una metodología extensamente utilizada en el marcaje de erizos de mar para el análisis de depredación, observando cómo esta técnica es perfectamente fiable en el análisis de depredación de erizos de mar, no afectando a la mortalidad de los individuos marcados ni a su detectabilidad por parte de depredadores. En global, los resultados presentados mejoraran la capacidad para predecir los cambios entre estados alternativos de los ecosistemas de macrófitos en el Mediterráneo y potencialmente de otros ecosistemas similares en los mares templados a nivel global.

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Hi ha un risc de malnutrició elevat en la població anciana i aquest risc és més gran en els pacients amb Malaltia d'Alzheimer (MA).La finalitat d'aquesta investigació va ser avaluar l'estat nutricional dels pacients amb MA en les diferents etapes de la malaltia i explorar com aquest estat es correlaciona amb les variables cognitives, funcionals, conductuals i el nivell de sobrecàrrega dels cuidadors.Es va realitzar un estudi observacional descriptiu prospectiu. La mostra estudiada en la valoració inicial va ser de 101 pacients i de 73 a la revaloració.Es va evidenciar que hi ha un risc de malnutrició elevat en els pacients amb MA i aquest pitjor estat nutricional es va correlacionar amb la situació cognitiva, conductual, funcional i el grau de sobrecàrrega del cuidador. L'escassa adhesió a la dieta mediterrània obliga a incrementar l'educació dietètica en aquest grup de pacients per millorar, en la mesura del possible, el seu pronòstic.
Existe un riesgo de malnutrición elevado en la población anciana y este riesgo es mayor en los pacientes con Enfermedad de Alzheimer (EA).La finalidad de esta investigación fue evaluar el estado nutricional de los pacientes con EA en las diferentes etapas de la enfermedad y explorar cómo este estado se correlaciona con las variables cognitivas, funcionales, conductuales y el nivel de sobrecarga de los cuidadores.Se realizó un estudio observacional descriptivo prospectivo. La muestra estudiada en la valoración inicial fue de 101 pacientes y de 73 en la revaloración.Se evidenció que existe un riesgo de malnutrición elevado en los pacientes con EA y este peor estado nutricional se correlacionó con la situación cognitiva, conductual, funcional y el grado de sobrecarga del cuidador. La escasa adhesión a la dieta mediterránea obliga a incrementar la educación dietética en este grupo de pacientes para mejorar, en la medida de lo posible, su pronóstico.
There is a high risk of malnutrition in the elderly population and this risk is higher in patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD).The purpose of this investigation was to evaluate the nutritional status of patients with AD in the different stages of the disease and to explore how this state correlates with the cognitive, functional, and behavioral variables and the level of overload of the caregivers.A prospective descriptive observational study was carried out. The sample studied in the initial assessment was 101 patients and 73 in the reassessment.It was evidenced that there is a high risk of malnutrition in patients with AD and this worse nutritional status was correlated with the cognitive, behavioral, functional situation and the degree of overload of the caregiver. The lack of adherence to the Mediterranean diet requires increasing dietary education in this group of patients to improve, as far as possible, their prognosis.

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Exploited marine fish species with an affinity for cold waters inhabiting close to the warmer edge of their distribution area are exposed to stress caused by fishing and climate change. Three case studies of “cold water species” were selected (Argentina sphyraena, Micromesistius poutassou and Merluccius merluccius) and, in each case, various biological traits – including the factors regulating early oogenesis, reproductive tactics, physical condition, parasitism and energy allocation trade-offs – were examined. Overall, the main findings support the idea that species-specific biological traits and plasticity influence population’s sensitivity and response to external stressors. This thesis contributes to the improvement of egg production estimation methods and to the understanding of fundamental biological mechanisms and their variability
Les espècies comercials de peixos marins amb preferència per a aigües fredes, que viuen a l’hemisferi nord properes al límit sud de la seva àrea de distribució, es troben en una situació vulnerable degut al canvi climàtic i a la sobrepesca. Aquesta tesi es centra en tres “espècies d’aigua freda”: el moixó (Argentina sphyraena), la maire (Micromesistius poutassou) i el lluç (Merluccius merluccius). Per tal de completar el coneixement sobre les seves característiques reproductives i avaluar el seu estat de salut, es van escollir tres especies d’aigua freda (el moixó, Argentina sphyraena; la maire, Micromesistius poutassou; i el lluç, Merluccius merluccius) i es van examinar diferents trets biològics que comprenen des dels factors que regulen les etapes més inicials de la ovogènesi fins a diverses característiques reproductives, així com l’estat de condició, el parasitisme i els balanços en la distribució de l’energia interna

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Une étude hydrogéologique a été entreprise sur les eaux de l'aquifère miocène du bassin de Valréas (Vaucluse). Celle-ci vise à améliorer la connaissance du fonctionnement du système grâce à une étude détaillée combinant une vaste gamme d'outils isotopiques et géochimiques qui inclut : les isotopes stables de la molécule d'eau (18O et 2H), les isotopes du carbone minéral dissous (13C et 14C), le tritium, les gaz rares et les éléments chimiques majeurs. Les activités 14C décroissent depuis environ 100 pcm dans la zone de recharge, jusqu'à des valeurs inférieures à 1 pcm dans l'aquifère captif. Les âges calculés révèlent la présence d'eau dont le temps de séjour atteint plus de 30 000 ans dans la partie confinée. Les teneurs en 18O et 2H mettent en évidence un fort contraste isotopique entre aquifère libre et aquifère captif, et l'étude de la relation 18O/2H souligne la particularité des circulations atmosphériques régionales, sous influence mixte atlantique et méditerranéenne. L'excès en deutérium calculé à partir des eaux anciennes suggère la persistance de ce schéma depuis le Pléistocène. Les paléotempératures de recharge déduites des concentrations en gaz rares fournissent une différence de température entre le Tardiglaciaire et l'Holocène de l'ordre de 7°C et les teneurs en hélium radiogénique montrent une évolution graduelle avec l'augmentation du temps de séjour. La géochimie des eaux met en évidence la sensibilité des eaux du réservoir miocène aux pollutions d'origine anthropique. Les minéraux argileux sont à l'origine d'échanges de bases dont l'intensité est proportionnelle au temps de séjour. La comparaison des vitesses hydrauliques et des vitesses radioisotopiques indique une grande différence dans les deux méthodes concernant la partie captive de l'aquifère, suggérant l'existence d'eaux quasi-stagnantes dans l'aquifère confiné. A l'issue de cette étude un modèle conceptuel de fonctionnement de l'aquifère est proposé.

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Las especies de peces mesopelágicas que se incluyen en esta investigación corresponden la familia Myctophidae (orden Myctophiformes) con las especies Ceratoscopelus maderensis, Hygophum benoiti y Benthosema glaciale para el mar Mediterráneo y Diaphus vanhoeffeni, Hygophum macrochir, Myctophum affine, M. asperum, M. nitidulum y Gonichthys cocco para el océano Atlántico, y la familia Sternoptychidae (orden Stomiiformes) con las especies Argyropelecus hemigymnus para el Mediterráneo y Argyropelecus sladeni y Sternoptyx diaphana para el océano Atlántico ecuatorial. Finalmente, se ha estudiado también la especie Bathylagoides argyrogaster de la familia Bathylagidae (orden Argentiniformes) del Atlántico. Con objeto de determinar los patrones alimenticios en los primeros estados de desarrollo de las diversas especies, en relación a los cambios morfológicos a lo largo de la ontogenia, su distribución en la columna de agua, y la disponibilidad de presas, se realizaron análisis de contenido intestinal y estomacal. Se calcularon diferentes índices, como la incidencia alimentaria (%FI) y el índice de importancia relativa de cada tipo de presa (%IRI). Para los ejemplares en transformación y juveniles se estimó el contenido de carbono total por estomago (%SCCI) y la tasa diaria de alimentación.Las larvas de las diversas especies de Myctophiformes, Stomiiformes y Argentiniformes se sitúan siempre en la capa fótica, independientemente de cómo sea la distribución de sus adultos y de que estos sean migradores o no. En general la distribución vertical es más amplia por la noche que durante el día, en que están más concentradas en los niveles próximos a superficie. Los ejemplares en estado de transformación presentan un rango de distribución vertical bastante amplio, con pautas de migración menos definidas que los adultos. Las larvas de mictófidos presentaron una compartimentación vertical, siendo las larvas de la subfamilia Lampanyctinae más someras que las de Myctophinae. En cambio, entre las especies que alcanzan la capa neustónica en estado de transformación, juvenil o adulto, dominan las de la subfamilia Myctophinae. Las larvas de mictófidos y las de batilágido se alimentan en las capas más iluminadas y únicamente en las horas de luz. En los estados de transformación los ritmos de alimentación no aparecen definidos, hallándose ejemplares con estómagos vacíos o llenos tanto de día como de noche. Las larvas de los sternoptíchidos, se alimentan tanto de día como de noche. En general, dentro de cada especie, las incidencias alimentarias aumentan hacia etapas de mayor desarrollo, siendo siempre mucho más alta en los ejemplares en estado de transformación.El análisis de los estómagos de los mictófidos en estado de transformación y juveniles del neuston, se alimentan a lo largo de toda la noche, y la máxima ingesta se produce entre las 22:00 y las 24:00 horas. A pesar del incremento en la talla de la boca con el desarrollo, no hay una especialización hacia presas más grandes. Los estados de transformación y juveniles, si bien consumen un mayor número de presas y pueden ingerir presas grandes, siguen consumiendo pequeñas.Las dietas de las diferentes especies a lo largo del desarrollo son muy similares. Los copépodos en diferentes estados de desarrollo son el componente mayoritario de las dietas. Presas grandes como eufausiáceos o hypéridos son exclusivos de los estados de transformación y juveniles, y su presencia en las dietas cambia drásticamente la proporción relativa de presas en términos de carbono.Para los estados de transformación y juveniles de M. affine, M. asperum, M. nitidulum y Gonichthys cocco del neuston se estimaron las tasas diarias de alimentación a partir de una serie de aproximaciones. Los valores obtenidos indican que estos mictófidos son capaces de ingerir ente un 0.1% y 3% de su peso a lo largo del día.

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In this thesis, the vulnerability and capacity of acclimation to environmental stress related to Climate change mainly in Cystoseira tamariscifolia and other species as Ellisolandia elongata, Cystoseira compressa and Padina pavonica are evaluated. The effects of physical stressors as elevated irradiance of PAR (lambda=400-700 nm) and UVR (lambda=280-400 nm) and temperature and chemical stressors as nutrient, heavy metals and CO2, separately and in interaction with different levels were evaluated. Six experimental studies were conducted under varying irradiance, temperature, nutrient conditions, acidification and heavy metals. The common approach in these studies was the use functional bioindicators to evaluate the physiological state macroalgal species of Mediterranean Sea (Alboran Sea) in studies conducted both in situ in ultra-oligotrophic (Cabo de Gata-Níjar Natural Park, Almeria) and oligotrophic waters (La Araña beach, Malaga) and with algae transported to controlled experimental systems under out-door conditions. In addition, an indoor experiment study was performed in Cystoseira tamariscifolia collected in the North Atlantic Ocean, the northern limit of distribution of this species.In this study, the decrease of maximal quantum yield and electron transport rate , the increase of phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity or the increase of C:N ratio are produced in stress conditions and thus they are validated as stress indicator. In addition, it is possible to evaluate the direction of the physiological response i.e. positive or negative to expected changes under climate change factors or other anthropogenic impacts, as eutrophication (increased nitrate levels in the water column) or pollution by heavy metals. However, on the other hand, the increase of phenolic compounds is also produced under increased photosynthetic activity showing a link between antioxidant and algal production. This not a strange result since a high photosynthetic activity is related to a high oxygen production which can be produced oxidative stress. Non-photochemical quenching, oxygen consumption through Mehler reaction and increased antioxidant activities are down regulation mechanisms to survive under promoted oxygenic scenario. Phenolic accumulation under increased nitrate and CO2 levels or the release of phenols under increased irradiance in C. tamariscifolia shows us that this species has effective biochemical mechanisms to acclimate for the expected variations in climate change factors although this is limited by temperature. Phenolic compounds are related to secondary metabolism but in C. tamariscifolia but the direct positive relation found with photosynthetic activity and internal nitrogen in all experiments seem to link the phenols to primary metabolism. In summary, increased CO2 under high irradiance, but not photoinhibitory, conditions will be favorable growth and physiological responses. The nitrate enrichment reduced stress provoked by irradiance or pollution by Cooper due to the photoprotection mechanisms are favored by nitrate increase. However, the positive effect of CO2 and nitrate is dependent on temperature, summer temperature in the field or 4oC increased temperature in outdoor experiments provoked physiological stress. Consequently, ocean acidification will be favorable for C. tamariscifolia only under no very high increase of temperature, less 2-3ºC and without nutrient limitation.The oligotrophication produced in certain areas of Mediterranean Sea will be unfavorable for Cystoseira tamariscifolia communities in a climate change scenario. The data on vulnerability and acclimation to climate change factors of Cystoseira tamariscifolia, Ellisolandia elongata and Padina pavonica presented in this study can help the management of macroalgal communities, mainly in protected areas. In addition, the physiological and biochemical data will help to predict the effects of climate change on bioactive compounds with antioxidant capacity and their potential biotechnological uses as phenolic compounds, mycosporine like aminoacids and carotenoids.
En esta tesis, se evaluó la vulnerabilidad y la capacidad de aclimatación al estrés ambiental, relacionada al cambio climático, en las especies Cystoseira tamariscifolia, Ellisolandia elongata, Cystoseira compressa y Padina pavonica. En estas especies, se evaluaron los efectos de los factores de estrés físico, como la irradiancia elevada de PAR (lambda = 400-700 nm) y UVR (lambda = 280-400 nm), la temperatura y factores de estrés químico, como nutrientes, metales pesados y CO2. Se realizaron seis estudios experimentales variando irradiancia, temperatura, condiciones de nutrientes, acidificación y metales pesados. El enfoque común en estos estudios fue el uso bioindicadores funcionales como; rendimiento cuántico máximo de PSII (Fv/Fm) como un indicador de estado fisiológico de macroalgas y de la fotoinhibición, la tasa de transporte de electrones (ETR) como un indicador de la capacidad fotosintética. Como indicadores bioquímicos se utilizaron; las relaciones estequiometrias (C:N) como indicador del estado nutricional y el contenido de compuestos fenólicos y micosporinas, tales como sustancias fotoprotectoras y antioxidantes. Con el objetivo de evaluar el estado fisiológico de estas especies de macroalgas en el Mar Mediterráneo (Mar de Alborán). La disminución del rendimiento cuántico y la tasa máxima de transporte de electrones, el aumento de compuestos fenólicos y actividad antioxidante o el aumento de la relación C: N se producen en condiciones de estrés y por lo tanto, estas variables se validan como indicadores de estrés. Sin embargo, se encontró un aumento de los compuestos fenólicos y de la actividad fotosintética, que muestra una relación entre la actividad antioxidante y la producción algal. Este no es un resultado extraño ya que una alta actividad fotosintética se relaciona con una producción alta de oxígeno lo que puede producir estrés oxidativo. La acumulación de compuestos fenólicos en condiciones de aumento de los niveles de nitrato y de CO2 o la liberación de fenoles bajo mayor radiación solar en C. tamariscifolia, nos muestra que esta especie tiene mecanismos bioquímicos eficaces para aclimatarse a las variaciones esperadas en los factores del cambio climático aunque esté limitado por la temperatura.

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L’étude de la représentation du pouvoir à l’époque moderne s’est beaucoup développée ces dernières années sous l’impulsion de spécialistes historiens de l’art ou sémiologues. Or ces études ont souvent exclu de leur champ de recherche l’espace géographique, pourtant fondamental, que constitue le monde méditerranéen. Cette thèse va donc s’articuler autour de l’interrogation suivante : l’art du portrait, et en particulier du portrait de cour peint, a-t-il été pour les princes italiens un support de leur politique, de l’affirmation de leur pouvoir et de leur puissance ? Le portrait de cour est-il le reflet de la conception du pouvoir des princes et des principaux mouvements intellectuels de l’époque moderne ? Après avoir replacé ces tableaux dans leur contexte historique, cette étude s’attachera à appliquer aux représentations du pouvoir une véritable analyse de contenu : étude des thèmes récurrents, périodicité de leur apparition, positionnement dans les plans de l’image, superficie occupée, mais aussi connotation de chacun à des référentiels culturels bien précis, autant de sens cachés et pourtant patents. Certaines principautés méditerranéennes ont en effet utilisé les principes picturaux et politiques de la Contre-réforme pour affirmer non seulement la supériorité de l’Église catholique, mais aussi leur pouvoir. Après la période de redécouverte de l’art du portrait que constitue la Renaissance, la Contre-réforme et le XVIIe siècle apparaissent comme l’utilisation du discours « visuel » pour s’opposer au discours écrit. Au contraire, au XVIIIe siècle, c’est l’influence des Lumières et des écrits philosophiques qui vont imprégner ces portraits de cour. Si certaines permanences demeurent, les décors ou certains éléments du costume montrent une imprégnation de la société et des sphères du pouvoir par les idées nouvelles, qu’elles soient politiques ou sociales
The study of the representation of power in modern times has developed significantly in recent years under the guidance of art historians and experts in semiotics. However, these studies have often excluded from their research the fundamentally important geographical space that is the Mediterranean world. Therefore, this thesis revolves around the following questions: Was the portraiture, and in particular the state portrait, a political statement of the power and legitimacy of the person represented in the painting? Is the court portrait a reflection of the conception of the power of the princes and the main intellectual movements of the modern era? After placing these paintings in their historical context, this study conducts a content analysis of the representations of power, focusing on recurrent themes, frequency of occurrence, and the placement of the image, and also to the connotation each specific cultural references, and meanings whether hidden or evident. Some Mediterranean principalities have indeed used the pictorial and political principles of the Counter-Reformation to assert not only the superiority of the Catholic Church, but also their own power. After the period of rediscovery of portraiture as an art form during the Renaissance, the Counter-Reformation and the seventeenth century are seen as the use of visual communication to oppose the written word. On the contrary, in the eighteenth century, the influence of the Enlightenment and philosophical writings permeates the state portraits. While there was a great deal of stability in portraiture over time, gradually the background decor and elements of the clothing began to reflect the arrival of new ideas, both political and social, within the spheres of power and in society more generally

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The dusky grouper Epinephelus marginatus (Lowe 1834), is a protogynous sequential hermaphrodite and is considered to be one of the most important fish species in the Mediterranean Sea. It is a K-strategist, being slow growing and late maturing, and this, coupled with its reproductive biology and relatively sedentary behaviour, has made it extremely sensitive to overexploitation, leading it to be classified by the IUCN as an endangered fish species. Wild dusky grouper have suffered from disease outbreaks in the past decade, leading to mass mortalities across the Mediterranean Sea, including Libyan coastal waters. These mortalities have mostly been attributed to Nodavirus infections. In Europe and Brazil, efforts are in place to culture this fish for commercial grow-out and stock enhancement programmes. In Libya, the dusky grouper is consumed regularly and is considered a prime-eating fish. Its importance for the Libyan internal market, as well as its potential for export, makes it an ideal candidate for future Libyan aquaculture activities. Given the scarce literature regarding the dusky grouper in Libya, this study aimed first to assess dusky grouper fisheries, spawning seasons and to identify the main threats that the fishing sector poses for wild stocks. Second this study aimed to determine the health status of wild dusky grouper offered at a local fish market in the capital Tripoli, in order to identify pathogens, pathologies or other health issues that might pose a hazard to cultured populations but also to remaining wild dusky grouper stocks. To achieve these aims, twelve field surveys spanning the period of 2013-2015 were conducted. From these surveys, it was established that the dusky grouper is captured throughout the year, including the spawning season. Fish sizes offered for sale ranged between 20-92 cm total length (TL), with the fish being sold from local fishing grounds around Tripoli, but also from as far as Benghazi, 1300 km to the east of Tripoli. The dusky grouper is principally caught in artisanal fisheries and by spearfishing, with approximately 300 spear-fishermen serving one particular fish market in Tripoli that was a focus in this study, and with dusky grouper being one of their main targets. Over the period of the survey, 267 landed dusky grouper were inspected for visible lesions prior to sampling. A total of 50 dusky grouper with sizes ranging from 27- 66 cm TL including the gonads from a further five fish measuring 66-92 cm TL that were sampled separately and examined to assess the stage of sexual maturity and to look for the presence of parasitic infections mainly affecting the gills, skin and gonads. The spawning season was found to extend from May to early September, with females ranging between 39-68 cm TL, males measuring 57-92 cm TL, and transient fish measuring 58-68 cm TL. From otolith readings of 8 fish, the youngest fish was a 3 year old juvenile of 28 cm TL and the oldest was an 8-9 year old 56 cm TL female. Whilst the highest prevalence of parasitic infection was found to be monogenean infection of the gills, with 100% prevalence, followed by gnathiid isopods infecting the oral cavity with 92% prevalence, it was the nematode Philometra sp. infecting post-spawning ovaries at 52% prevalence, that gave the highest apparent pathological impact. Necrosis potentially attributed to Philometra sp. in one particular ovary, was at a level likely to have caused complete parasitic castration, while others showed varying levels of probable functional reduction. The pathologies described need further investigation, especially in relation to possible synergies between Philometra sp. and bacteria in causing the necrosis. From the 267 inspected dusky grouper, 55 fish ranging in size from 42-92 cm TL were observed to be affected by external skin lesions of unknown aetiology. Twenty-six of these fish were sampled, having lesions at various stages of severity, and 5 further unaffected fish were used for histological assessment of the skin as negative controls. Histopathologically, the lesions comprised a multifocal, unilateral or bilateral dermatitis, involving the epidermis, superficial dermis and scale pockets, and sometimes, in severe cases, the hypodermis. Severe lesions had marked epidermal spongiosis progressing to ulceration. Healing was observed in some fish. Bacteria and fungi could be isolated from severe lesions, although they were not seen histopathologically in early-stage lesions. By contrast, metazoan parasite eggs were observed in the dermis and epidermis of some fish with mild and moderate dermatitis. Unidentified gravid digenean trematodes, carrying similar eggs, were also seen within the blood vessels of the deep and superficial dermis. The newly described condition was termed dusky grouper dermatitis (DGD). DGD’s geographical distribution along the Libyan coastline was investigated using a novel application of the social media network Facebook. Using Facebook, it was possible to document skin lesions of dusky grouper in Libyan waters from images attached to the entries of spear-fishermen. Thirty two Facebook accounts and 8 Facebook groups posting from 23 Libyan coastal cities provided a retrospective observational dataset comprising a total of 382 images of dusky grouper caught by spearfishing from December 2011-December 2015. Skin lesions were observable on 57 / 362 fish, for which images were of sufficient quality for analysis, giving a minimal prevalence for lesions of 15.75%. Only dusky grouper exceeding an estimated 40 cm total length exhibited lesions. The ability to collect useful data about the occurrence and geographical distribution of pathological conditions affecting wild fish using social media networks, demonstrates their potential utility as a tool to support epidemiological studies and monitor the health of populations of aquatic animals. The gravid digenean trematode described from mild lesions of five fish was identified using reconstruction through histological sectioning as belonging to the Family Aporocotylidae Odhner, 1912. This is the first description of a blood fluke from the dusky grouper, as well as from dermal blood vessels. The parasite was relatively long; the longest section of the parasite that could be measured was 1500 µm and 20-80 µm in width, while the total length of the parasite was estimated at 1500-2000 µm. Minute tegumental spines, possibly covering only a few parts of the parasite, were seen from some cross-sections. The parasite had one post-testicular ovary, which might overlap the testis, a pre-ovarian ascending uterus, and a post-ovarian descending uterus. It also possessed an oesophagus surrounded by oesophageal glandular cells and a pre-ovarian and pre-testicular extension of the vitelline cells, mostly at the level of the ascending uterus. The parasite was observed to be intra-vascular, the uterine lumen varies in size to accommodate between 1-7 eggs. The uterine eggs were embryonated and observed to span several stages of maturation. Eggs were also found in the dermal blood vessels, in the dermis, and in the epidermis, with the latter appearing to provide a potential route of egress of eggs into the environment. The extra-uterine eggs were 23.5 to 37.52 µm long and contained a ciliated miracidium. The eggs seemed to elicit a mixed inflammatory reaction, with degranulation of eosinophilic granular cells attached to the external surface of some of the eggs within the blood vessels but also the dermis. From observations made in the current study, this parasite appears to be a new species, most closely allied to none of the currently described Aporocotylidae genera.
In summary, the present study has demonstrated that the dusky grouper is extensively fished in Libya without discrimination to sizes and season, by both artisanal and spearfishing, with the latter as one of the main fishing methods, posing treats to the spawning potential and conservation of dusky grouper in Libya. The philometrid infecting the ovaries has a potential to reduce fecundity or to result in parasitic castration of wild broodstock. Gill-infecting monogeneans might represent a hazard for all stages of dusky grouper production. Dusky grouper dermatitis is a skin lesion, although there are no indications that infections may result in mortalities. Under culture conditions, however, this might change due to increase bacterial loads, which might lead to secondary bacterial infection. The presence of skin lesions would undoubtedly reduce the market value of whole fish. These findings are important for existing wild stocks, and for future plans regarding the aquaculture of dusky grouper. Future studies need to focus on the pathology of DGD, describing the disease process and aetiology using laboratory techniques such as TEM and virology as well as using morphology and molecular-based tools to describe the blood fluke and to determine their potential role in the initiation the disease. The novel approach to disease surveillance using social media Facebook posts could be further expanded by attracting citizen scientists, for future research assessing disease in wild fish, for sightings of mortality events and/or the appearance of disease outbreaks, or, for mapping marine mammal stranding’s and/or turtle nesting activity.

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Tenue à Barcelone les 27-28 novembre 1995, la Conférence euro-méditerranéenne des ministres des Affaires étrangères a marqué le début d’un Partenariat nouveau entre l’Union européenne, ses 15 Etats membres (désormais 27 Etats membres) et leurs 12 Partenaires Méditerranéens (désormais 10). Ce Partenariat comprend une coopération bilatérale (conclusion d’un accord d’association qui couvre les trois objectifs fixés par la Déclaration de Barcelone entre l’Union européenne et chaque pays partenaire), d’une part, une coopération régionale, d’autre part. Le Partenariat euro-méditerranéen repose sur la conviction commune qu’il est souhaitable de développer une politique globale axée sur l’association étroite, dans un large éventail de domaines présentant un intérêt commun, du fait de la proximité des deux régions. La Déclaration de Barcelone, adoptée lors de la Conférence de Barcelone, a établi les trois objectifs essentiels du Partenariat : 1- la définition d’un espace euro-méditerranéen de paix et de stabilité par le renforcement du dialogue politique et de sécurité (partenariat politique et de sécurité) ; 2- le rapprochement entre les peuples au moyen d’un partenariat social, culturel et humain qui vise à favoriser la compréhension des cultures et les échanges entre les sociétés civiles (partenariat social, culturel et humain) ; 3- la construction d’une zone de prospérité partagée et l’instauration d’une zone de libre-échange (partenariat économique et financier), fondée sur l’économie de marché et l’initiative privée dans le respect des règles de l’Organisation Mondiale du Commerce. La mise en place de la zone de libre-échange prévoit l’élimination des barrières douanières (et des taxes d’effet équivalent) et de toute entrave à la libre circulation des marchandises entre les pays de l’Union européenne et les pays du sud et de l’est de la Méditerranée. Or, dans le cadre du Partenariat euro-méditerranéen, les pays arabes partenaires sont confrontés à la nécessaire conciliation de deux impératifs majeurs : -d’une part, la demande sociale, liée à l’exigence du développement économique, entraîne un fort besoin de recettes publiques ; d’autre part, le désarmement tarifaire, résultant de l’instauration progressive de la zone de libre-échange euro-méditerranéenne, se traduit par une baisse significative de recettes douanières et entraîne de ce fait la nécessité de mobiliser plus largement la fiscalité interne. Dès lors, quid de la dimension économique et financière et des incidences financières publiques sous-jacentes du Partenariat ? Quels sont les défis auxquels les partenaires arabes méditerranéens sont désormais confrontés en matière de finances publiques ? Du Processus de Barcelone, découle une nécessaire prise de conscience par les Etats arabes méditerranéens de l’exigence d’une réforme de leurs finances publiques
Held in Barcelona November on 27 and 28 1995, the euro-Mediterranean Conference of ministers of Foreign Affairs marked the kick-off of a new Partnership between the European Union, its 15 member states (from now on 27 member states) and their 12 Mediterranean Partners (from now on 10). This Partnership includes on the one hand a bilateral cooperation (conclusion of an association agreement which covers the three objectives set out in the Barcelona Declaration between the European Union and each partner country), on the other hand, a regional cooperation. The euro-Mediterranean Partnership is founded on the mutual recognition of the value of developing a comprehensive policy of close association in a large number of sectors of common interest resulting from the proximity of the two regions. The Barcelona Declaration, adopted at the Barcelona Conference, has established the three key objectives of the Partnership : 1- the definition of a euro-Mediterranean area of peace and stability by strengthening the policy dialogue and the security (political and security partnership) ; 2- the rapprochement of peoples by means of a social, cultural and human partnership which aims at promoting understanding between cultures and exchanges between civil societies (social, cultural and human partnership) ; 3 – the creation of an area of shared prosperity and the establishment of free-trade area (economic and financial partnership), based on the market economy and private initiative in line with World Trade Organization standards. The establishment of a free trade area provides for the elimination of customs barriers (and of equivalent effect taxes) and of any obstacle to the free movement of goods between the European Union countries and South and East Mediterranean countries. However, in the framework of the euro-Mediterranean Partnership, the Arab partners countries are confronted with the necessary conciliation of two majors imperatives : - on the one hand, the social demand, linked to the requirement of economic development, involves a strong need for public receipts ; - in addition, tariff dismantling, resulting from the progressive establishment of a euro-Mediterranean free trade area, results in a significant decrease in the customs returns and thus caused the need to mobilize more broadly the internal taxation. So what about the economic and financial dimension and the underlying public financial implications of the Partnership ? What are the public finance challenges facing Arab Mediterranean partners ? Arising from Barcelona process, the necessary awareness by member states of the need for their public finances reforms

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Les écosystèmes marins côtiers subissent de nombreuses perturbations naturelles et anthropiques. Dans le contexte socio-économique actuel, mieux comprendre le fonctionnement et transfert des contaminants dans ces écosystèmes est primordial. L’étude du transfert de la matière organique et des contaminants aux interfaces, constitue un enjeu crucial. Les principaux objectifs sont de caractériser l’ichtyofaune des herbiers de posidonie et comprendre les relations trophiques ; d’établir les niveaux et variabilité spatiale de la contamination en éléments traces ETs et polluants organiques persistants POPs dans les compartiments de l’écosystème ; et d’identifier les sources et les processus influençant les niveaux de contamination le long du réseau trophique à Marseille et Hyères. La caractérisation du peuplement de poissons et des relations trophiques au sein de l’écosystème est nécessaire pour comprendre les niveaux de contamination. Chez les poissons, le phénomène de bioaccumulation des ETs est difficile à mettre en évidence, excepté pour le mercure. L’influence du régime alimentaire, taille et besoins physiologiques et métaboliques est manifeste. La grande stabilité et la rémanence des POPs leur confèrent des propriétés de bioconcentration et de bioamplification importantes. Les concentrations en contaminants mesurées, ainsi que la détection de pesticides toxiques interdits, attestent de la nécessité de considérer cette pollution avec attention, plus forte à Marseille
The marine ecosystems undergo frequent disturbances. In the current socio-economic context characterized by intensive urban development and industrialization, it is of primordial importance for the management of the environment to achieve a better understanding of the functioning and the transfer of contaminants within these ecosystems. The study of the transfer of organic matter and contaminants to the interfaces is thus a crucial issue. The main objectives are to characterize the fish fauna and to determine the food webs; to establish the levels and patterns of spatial variability of contamination by trace elements TEs and persistent organic pollutants POPs; and to identify the sources and the processes having an influence on the levels of contamination throughout the food webs. The characterization of the fish populations and the trophic relations between the compartments of the ecosystem is necessary in order to understand the levels of contamination in TEs and POPs. For the fishes, it is difficult to provide evidence of the phenomenon of bioaccumulation of TEs, except for mercury, but the influence of diet, size and physiological and metabolic requirements is obvious. The great stability, liposolubility and persistence of the POPs confer on them significant bioconcentration and bioamplification capabilities. The concentrations in TEs and POPs recorded, and the detection of banned toxic pesticides, attest to the necessity of paying close attention to this pollution

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Avec le lancement du Partenariat Euro-Méditerranéen (PEM) en 1995, les relations entre l’Union européenne et les Pays tiers méditerranéens (PTM) connaissent une évolution notable. Du fait de la mise en place d’un cadre multilatéral complété par la conclusion des accords d’association, ce Partenariat représente une rupture avec les politiques méditerranéennes antérieures. Dans le contexte du cinquième élargissem*nt de l'Union européenne du 1er mai 2004, la Politique Européenne de Voisinage (PEV) transforme le PEM en préconisant la création d’un cercle d'amis avec les voisins méditerranéens du Sud et les nouveaux voisins de l’Est. Ce métissage est le résultat de la rencontre entre deux cadres à objectifs différents et contextes géostratégiques différents : le PEM comme cadre de coopération régionale établi dans les années quatre-vingt-dix et une PEV en tant que politique de l’UE employant les méthodologies issues du processus de préadhésion. Les transformations des relations euro-méditerranéennes après la PEV ont permis l'émergence progressive d'une nouvelle forme relationnelle avec un impact contrasté sur les dimensions bilatérale et multilatérale du PEM. Cette étude définit le résultat de cette nouvelle dynamique interactive des politiques de l’UE sous le nom de cadres de voisinage euro-méditerranéens. La délimitation des cadres de voisinage euro-méditerranéens passe par l’analyse des transformations des relations après le cinquième élargissem*nt en distinguant la dimension multilatérale de la dimension bilatérale. Si la dimension régionale euro-méditerranéenne post-élargissem*nt n’est que partiellement affectée par la PEV, la dimension bilatérale est, quant à elle, profondément modifiée par l’instauration progressive d’un cadre relationnel à mi-chemin entre l’association et l’adhésion
With the launch of the Euro-Mediterranean Partnership (EMP) in 1995, the relation between the relationship between the EU and Mediterranean countries witnessed a significant evolution. With the establishment of a multilateral framework supplemented by the conclusion of association agreements, this Partnership represents a break with past Mediterranean policies. In the context of the fifth enlargement of the European Union on May 1st, 2004, the European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP) transforms the PEM; advocating for the creation of a circle of friends with Mediterranean neighbors in the South and the new neighbors in the East. This mix is the result of the encounter between two frameworks with different objectives in different geo-strategic contexts: the EMP as a regional cooperation framework established in the nineties on one hand and the ENP, i.e. an EU policy using the pre-accession process methodologies on the other hand. The transformation of Euro-Mediterranean relations after the ENP allowed for the gradual emergence of a novel relational framework with a mixed impact on the bilateral and multilateral dimensions of the EMP. This study defines the result of this new interactive dynamic of the EU policies falling under the Euro-Mediterranean neighbourhood framework. The delimitation of the Euro-Mediterranean neighbourhood frameworks involves the study of the transformations in the relations following the fifth enlargement, distinguishing between multilateral and bilateral dimensions. While the Euro-Mediterranean regional dimension post-enlargement is only partially affected by the ENP, the bilateral dimension is, in turn, profoundly changed by the progressive introduction of a relational framework halfway between the association and the membership

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Cette thèse porte sur le sandjak d’Alexandrette, région centrée autour d’Antioche et d’Alexandrette, dépendant sous l’Empire ottoman du vilayet d’Adana ou de celui d’Alep, depuis les années 1860 jusqu’à la fin de la Seconde Guerre mondiale. Cette région, débouché méditerranéen stratégique de la Syrie du Nord et de l’Irak, peuplée d’une multitude de communautés, est cédée par la France à la Turquie en 1939. À l’échelle internationale et régionale, il s’agit d’étudier sur le temps long cet espace : la présence des communautés (notamment marchandes et consulaires) européennes et leur rôle dans la défense des intérêts européens et la protection des populations sur la longue durée. On s’attache à comprendre les transformations de ce territoire à la suite des bouleversem*nts politiques ̶ le passage du cadre impérial au cadre de l’État-nation syrien sous mandat français, puis le rattachement à la République, ainsi que les deux Guerre mondiales ̶ et économiques ̶ la Grande Dépression de la fin du XIXe siècle, puis celle des années 1930 ̶ qu’il connaît. À l’échelle locale, nous évaluons les impacts des recompositions territoriales et politiques sur les populations et les activités : la structuration des réseaux d’échanges, des réseaux consulaires et familiaux, la création des identités nationales, les recompositions des relations entre les diverses communautés. En utilisant non seulement les archives diplomatiques françaises, britanniques, ottomanes et italiennes, mais aussi les archives des communautés religieuses et des archives commerciales et privées de familles levantines d’Alexandrette, nous étudions ce territoire dans une histoire plus longue que celle du contentieux diplomatique qui oppose la France et la Turquie entre 1936 et 1939 devant la SDN, en prenant en compte la vie politique, économique, sociale et religieuse locale
This dissertation deals with the sandjak of Alexandretta from the 1860s until the end of World War II. In the Ottoman Empire, the sandjak was attached to the vilayet of Adana or that of Aleppo. A region which used to be the strategic Mediterranean outlet for northern Syria and Iraq, and inhabited by a great variety of communities, the sandjak was ceded by France to Turkey in 1939. We aim at studying this region on the regional and international levels through the history of European communities (especially merchants and consulars) and their role in defending European interests and protecting populations on the long duration. We strive to understand the transformations affecting this territory following the political upheavals ̶ the transition from the imperial framework to the Syrian nation-state under French mandate, then the attachment to the Republic, as well as the two World Wars ̶ and economic – the late 19th century Great Depression and the crisis tof the 1930s. At the local level, we assess the impact of territorial and political restructuring on populations and activities: the configuration of exchange networks, consular and family networks, the creation of national identities, the reconstruction of relationships between the various communities inhabiting the region. By using French, British, Ottoman and Italian diplomatic archives in addition to the archives of religious communities and the commercial and private archives of Levantine families of Alexandretta, we study this territory in on a longer term than the history of diplomatic litigation which opposed France and Turkey between 1936 and 1939 before the League of Nations, taking into account local political, economic, social and religious life

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À la transition entre l’Antiquité et le Moyen Âge, la reconstitution de l’alimentation à une échelle individuelle offre l’avantage de pouvoir confronter les informations concernant la diète à celles constitutives de l’identité du sujet et du site. Elle permet ainsi d’aborder l’impact des mutations de cette période sur la vie quotidienne.Cette recherche concerne l’analyse des rapports isotopiques de l’azote et du carbone (delta13C et delta15N) du collagène osseux de 371 humains et 388 animaux. Les échantillons proviennent de 23 sites du Languedoc et de Provence, occupés entre la fin du 4ème siècle et le début du 13ème siècle. Un corpus de comparaison établi à partir des données isotopiques issues de la bibliographie comprend 1431 humains provenant d’Espagne, de Croatie, d’Italie et de Grèce.Pour la période comprise entre le 4ème et le 7ème siècle, en Provence, la consommation des ressources marines perceptible révèle la présence d’un réseau d’approvisionnement pour ces ressources, desservant les centres urbains jusqu’à 50 km de la côte. Pour la période comprise entre le 9ème et le 12ème siècle, en Languedoc, une augmentation de la consommation des ressources aquatiques au tournant du millénaire met en lumière l'emprise de l’Église sur les comportements alimentaires dans les campagnes. Enfin, les données alimentaires du Sud-Est de la France sont hom*ogènes comparativement à celles des autres régions de Méditerranée. Cela signe une moindre importance des ressources marines et du millet (ressources C4) dans l’alimentation de cette région et donc, une influence de l’appartenance culturelle sur les choix de consommation
At the transition from Antiquity to the Middle Ages, the reconstitution of food on an individual scale offers the advantage of being able to compare information concerning the diet with that constituting the identity of the subject and the site. It thus makes it possible to address the impact of the changes of this period on daily life.This research involves the analysis of the isotopic ratios of nitrogen and carbon (delta13C and delta15N) of bone collagen from 371 humans and 388 animals. The samples come from 23 sites in Languedoc and Provence, occupied between the end of the 4 century and the beginning of the 13 century. A corpus of comparison based on isotopic data from the bibliography includes 1431 humans from Spain, Croatia, Italy and Greece.For the period between 4th and 7th century, in Provence, the perceptible consumption of marine resources reveals the presence of a supply network for these resources, serving urban centres up to 50 km from the coast. For the period between 9 and 12 century, in Languedoc, an increase in the consumption of aquatic resources at the turn of the millennium highlights the Church's influence on eating habits in the countryside. Finally, the food data for South-East France are hom*ogeneous compared to those for the other Mediterranean regions. This indicates a lower importance of marine resources and millet (C4 resources) in the diet of this region and therefore, an influence of cultural belonging on consumption choices

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L'étude des interglaciaires passés qui sont des périodes chaudes avec un volume de glace réduit comme l’interglaciaire actuel, l'Holocène, est cruciale pour comprendre le climat futur. Ce travail apporte de nouvelles informations sur le climat des interglaciaires clés, les stades isotopiques marins (MIS) 11 et 31, considérés comme des analogues au réchauffement global projeté. Une analyse pollinique des sédiments du Site IODP U1385 (marge sud-ouest ibérique) a été effectuée à haute résolution, ce qui permet de comparer directement les variations de la végétation (atmosphère) avec celles de la température des eaux de surface océaniques. Nos données montrent qu’à l’échelle orbitale, la forêt du sud-ouest de l’Europe pendant le MIS 11 est principalement influencée par la précession alors que pendant le MIS 31, malgré des valeurs de précession extrêmes, le forçage dominant est l’obliquité, favorisant une végétation moins méditerranéenne et un régime climatique tempéré. De plus, la variabilité millénaire apparaît comme une caractéristique persistante mais les épisodes de refroidissem*nt varient en intensité et durée en fonction des conditions limites qui favorisent un forçage prédominant des hautes ou basses latitudes. Enfin, nous examinons l'expression régionale de l'Holocène et de ses analogues orbitaux, les MIS 11c et 19c dans le sud-ouest de l’Europe. Ceci révèle que l'optimum Holocène se distingue par un plus fort développement forestier et donc que les MIS 11c et 19cne sont pas des analogues à l’Holocène pour notre zone d’étude. Grâce à une comparaison modèle-données, nous montrons aussi que la forêt interglaciaire dans cette région est principalement contrôlée par la précession en influençant les précipitations hivernales, facteur critique pour le développement de la forêt méditerranéenne, tandis que le CO2 joue un rôle négligeable
The study of past interglacials, periods of reduced ice volume like our present interglacial, the Holocene, is crucial for understanding the future climate. This work provides new insights into the intensity and climate variability of key interglacials, namely Marine Isotopic Stages (MIS) 11 and 31, considered as analogues for the projected global warming. A highresolution pollen analysis at IODP Site U1385 off SW Iberia was performed, which enables adirect comparison between atmospheric-driven vegetation changes and sea surface temperature variability. At orbital time scale, this thesis shows that the dominant orbital forcing on the SW European forest was different between the interglacials of the 100-ky (MIS 11) and 41-ky (MIS31) worlds. While during MIS 11 its weak precessional forcing predominates, during MIS 31 itsextreme precession forcing is dwarfed by the prevailing influence of obliquity leading to a temperate climate regime as shown by a less Mediterranean character of the vegetation. This work also shows that millennial-scale variability was a pervasive feature and suggests that the different intensity and duration of the cooling events in SW Iberia was related to different atmospheric and oceanic configurations modulated by high or low-latitude forcing depending on the baseline climate states. Finally, this study examines the dominant forcing underlying the regional expression of the Holocene and its orbital analogues, MIS 11c and 19c, over SW Iberia using a data-model comparison approach. This comparison reveals that the Holocene optimum stands out for its higher forest development and therefore these interglacials cannot be considered as analogues for the Holocene vegetation and climate changes in Iberia. Additionally,it shows that the SW Iberian forest dynamics during these interglacials were primarily controlled by precession through its influence on winter precipitation, which is critical for the Mediterranean forest development whereas CO2 played a negligible role

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Os rios de tipo mediterrânico estão sujeitos a grandes variações sazonais e inter-anuais de caudal o que, associado à degradação antrópica, vai implicar alterações nos agrupamentos biológicos ao longo do tempo. Os protocolos de monitorização do estado ecológico estabeleceram amostragens de primavera, e os índices foram desenvolvidos nesse sentido. Este trabalho teve como objectivo principal comparar a resposta de índices piscícolas e de macroinvertebrados na primavera e no outono. Os resultados mostram que, no geral, os valores dos índices no outono não são inferiores aos de primavera, como se poderia esperar, concluindo-se que é viável monitorizar com amostragens de outono. Complementarmente, comparou-se a responsividade dos diversos índices à degradação. Nos macroinvertebrados, IBMWP e IPtI foram os mais responsivos, em oposição a IM9, e na ictiofauna foram F-IBIP e NMR mais responsivos em oposição a IBI; ABSTRACT: Mediterranean type rivers are subject to large seasonal and inter-annual flow variations. This natural variability, with the different anthropogenic pressures, causes changes through time on the biological assemblages. The monitoring protocols for the ecological assessment refer sampling should take place in spring. The main goal of this study was to compare the response of invertebrate and fish indexes in spring and in autumn. Results show that, in general, the indexes values for autumn are not lower than the spring ones, as could be expected, which means that autumn sampling may be considered as an alternative to the usual spring sampling. The indexes response to human pressures were also compared. For macroinvertebrates, IBMWP and IPtI showed the best performances and IM9, the worse; for fishfauna, F-IBIP and NMR responded best to pressures and IBI had the worse performance.

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La transition alimentaire touche tous les pays émergents avec un développement des pathologies dégénératives liées à l'alimentation. Notre recherche visait à étudier la typologie alimentaire libanaise actuelle sous l'angle de la question suivante: le Liban a-t-il préservé son alimentation traditionnelle ou a-t-il évolué vers une alimentation occidentale ? Une pré-enquête menée au Liban en 2003, a permis d'identifier que la place des plats traditionnels dans l'alimentation libanaise reste importante de nos jours. Cependant, les outils d'enquêtes nécessaires à caractériser de manière fiable et précise les consommations alimentaires n'étaient pas disponibles. Ceci nous a conduits à développer des outils pour évaluer la part de l'alimentation traditionnelle dans la diète libanaise et à évaluer sa contribution à la couverture des besoins nutritionnels. Nous avons construit et validé un cahier de photographies de portions alimentaires, un questionnaire de fréquence alimentaire et une table de composition nutritionnelle correspondant à ces plats. Nous avons ensuite réalisé une enquête sur une sous-population représentative et conclut les points suivants :1- La population libanaise moderne a préservé une place importante à l'alimentation traditionnelle : 57% de la population libanaise consomme plus de 9 plats traditionnels par semaine, soit près de 2 plats par jour.2- Cette alimentation est caractérisée, comme dans la plupart des régions méditerranéennes, par une contribution prépondérante des fruits et légumes (42%), des céréales (34% : pain 14% ; feuilletés 5%) et des légumes secs (7%) dans la ration alimentaire.3- Le régime alimentaire libanais traditionnel est entrain d'être abandonné surtout par les hommes actifs, les étudiants et les personnes célibataires, qui passent la plupart de leur temps hors domicile et sont donc plus susceptibles de consommer une alimentation plus industrielle, indépendamment de l'âge, du niveau d'éducation et de la région de résidence.4- La population libanaise, au travers de la consommation des seuls plats traditionnels dont l'apport calorique dépasse les 75%, a des apports moyens en calories de 2047 kcal/j, des apports énergétiques moyens en glucides de 46%, en protéines de 11% et en lipides de 43% dont 10% d'AGS, 20% d'AGMI et 10% d'AGPI. Elle couvre presque tous ses besoins en vitamines et minéraux.5- La ration alimentaire libanaise présente aujourd'hui une forte tendance à évoluer vers des régimes riches en lipides au détriment des glucides. Ces derniers gardent cependant une place relativement importante dans la ration mais ont changé de nature: autrefois consommés sous forme de céréales complètes, ils le sont aujourd'hui sous forme de céréales raffinées et transformées. En conclusion, le Liban semble être le lieu d'une coexistence entre la tradition et la modernité. Une revalorisation du régime traditionnel encore très présent dans les habitudes alimentaires devrait permettre de ralentir la transition nutritionnelle et améliorer l'état de santé de la population
All emerging countries are now subjected to a dietary transition accompanied by a development of degenerative pathologies related to human diet. Our research is aimed at investigating the current Lebanese food typology under the following theme: have Lebanon been able to preserve its local traditional diet or have it been affected by the exposure to western diet? A pre-survey administered in Lebanon in 2003, showed that the existence of the traditional dishes in the Lebanese diet remain important till date. However, the absence of reliable and precise tools to conduct surveys aiming to describe food consumptions gave us an incentive to develop such tools. The main purpose of the exercise is to determine the contribution of the traditional Lebanese food to the relative overall intake and to evaluate its contribution in covering the various nutritional needs. For this reason, we developed and validated a photographic atlas of food portions, a food frequency questionnaire and a table of food composition corresponding to the traditional Lebanese dishes. This effort was followed by a survey on a representative sub-population that suggested 5 main findings:1-The modern Lebanese population preserved an important place for the traditional food: 57 % of the Lebanese population consumes more than 9 traditional dishes per week, which means 2 dishes per day.2-This diet is characterized, as in most of the Mediterranean regions, by a dominating contribution of fruits and vegetables (42 %), cereals (34 %: bread 14 %; pastries 5 %) and legumes (7 %) in the daily food ration.3-The traditional Lebanese diet is especially absent from active men, students and the single persons, who spend most of their time out of home and may thus consume industrial food, independently of their age, educational level and the location of their residence.4-The Lebanese population, through the consumption of the only traditional dishes of which the energy intake exceeds the 75 %, has mean energy intake of 2047 kcal/day. The breakdown shows a statistical mean of carbohydrates ranging up to 46 %; 11% of proteins; 43% of lipids; 10 % of SFA, 20 % of MUFA and 10 % of PUFA. The Lebanese population covers almost all their needs in vitamins and minerals.5- The Lebanese daily food ration presents a strong trend today to evolve towards diets rich in lipids on the detriment of carbohydrates. Carbohydrates keep however a place that is relatively important in the ration but with a changed pattern: consumed in the form of wholegrain cereal in the past, they are now replaced by refined and transformed cereal. In conclusion, Lebanon seems to be the place of coexistence between the tradition and the modernity. A valorisation of the still very present traditional diet in the food habits should allow to slow down the nutritional transition and to improve the health of the population